Abstract High-Purity Germanium (HPGe) detectors are a key technology for rare-event searches such as neutrinoless double-beta decay (0νββ) and dark matter experiments. Pulse shapes from these detectors vary with interaction topology and thus encode information critical for event classification. Pulse shape simulations (PSS) are essential for modeling analysis cuts that distinguish signal events from backgrounds and for generating reliable simulations of energy spectra. Traditional PSS methods rely on a series of first-principles corrections to replicate the effect of readout electronics, requiring challenging fits over large parameter spaces and often failing to accurately model the data. We present a neural network architecture, the Cyclic Positional U-Net (CPU-Net), that performs translations of simulated pulses so that they closely resemble measured detector signals. Using a Cycle Generative Adversarial Network (CycleGAN) framework, this Response Emulation Network (REN) learns a data-driven mapping between simulated and measured pulses with high fidelity, without requiring a predetermined response model. We use data from a High-Purity Germanium (HPGe) detector with an inverted-coaxial point contact (ICPC) geometry to show that CPU-Net effectively captures and reproduces critical pulse shape features, allowing more realistic simulations without detector-specific tuning. CPU-Net achieves up to a factor-of-four improvement in distribution-level agreement for pulse shape parameter reconstruction, while preserving the topology-dependent information required for pulse-shape discrimination.

Future experiments at hadron colliders require an evolution of the tracking sensors to ensure sufficient radiation hardness as well as space and time resolution to handle unprecedented particle fluxes. 3D diamond sensors with laser-graphitized electrodes are promising candidates due to their strong binding energy, small atomic number, and high carrier mobility. However, the high resistance of the engraved electrodes delays the propagation of the induced signals towards the readout electronics, thereby degrading the precision of the timing measurements. So far, this effect has been the dominant factor limiting the time resolution of these devices, with other contributions, such as those due to electric field inhomogeneities or electronic noise, typically neglected. Recent advancements in graphitization technology, however, motivate a renewed effort in modeling signal generation in 3D diamond detectors, to achieve more reliable predictions. To this purpose, we apply an extended version of the Ramo-Shockley theorem, describing the effect of signal propagation as a time-dependent weighting potential, obtained by numerically solving the Maxwell's equations in a quasi-static approximation. We developed a custom spectral method solver and validated it against COMSOL MultiPhysics^®. The response of the modeled sensor to a beam of particles is then simulated using Garfield++ and is compared to the data acquired in a beam test carried on in 2021 by the TimeSPOT Collaboration at the SPS, at CERN. Based on the results obtained with this simulation workflow, we conclude that reducing the resistivity of the graphitic columns remains the priority for significantly improving the time resolution of 3D diamond detectors. Once achieved, optimization of the detector geometry and readout electronics design will become equally important steps to further enhance the timing performance of these devices.

The performance of the CMS electromagnetic calorimeter upgraded readout electronics, developed for the High-Luminosity phase of the LHC, is discussed. Data collected in two beam test campaigns conducted in 2018 and 2021 at the H4 and H2 beam lines of the CERN SPS are analyzed. Time and energy resolutions are measured on a 5× 5 matrix of lead tungstate crystals equipped with prototypes of the new front end readout electronics, using electron and pion beams of energies spanning from 25 to 250 GeV. In both campaigns the constant term of the energy resolution is measured to be better than 0.6% and the time resolution for electrons with energies above 50 GeV is measured to be better than 30 ps, fulfilling the design requirements.

Objective.Dedicated positron emission tomography (PET) scanners designed for specific organs or clinical applications require compact detector modules with high depth-of-interaction (DOI) and time-of-flight (TOF) capabilities. In this study, we present the design and evaluation of a compact, ready-to-use PET detector panel optimized for such scanners.Approach.The panel, measuring 98.4 × 104.2 mm2, comprises a 4 × 3 array of four-layer, dual-readout detector towers. Detector towers operate in side-irradiation configuration, thereby enabling DOI measurement across the layers, while axial positioning is derived from the dual-ended readout. Each tower is built from a 8 × 4 × 1 array of 2.05 × 4.4 × 30 mm3Lutetium Fine Silicate (LFS) crystals, axially coupled to strip-shaped multi-pixel photon counters, with both ends of each strip read out through independent electronic channels. A high-speed electronic readout system based on the picoTDC application-specific integrated circuit was developed to enable precise timing and amplitude measurements. Calibration and performance evaluations were conducted under realistic and scaled conditions. A full-range energy calibration was performed at crystal-level using multiple gamma-emitting isotopes to linearize the detector's response and extract energy resolution. Calibration for axial-positioning along the length of the crystals (between two readout ends) was achieved through a simple flood irradiation-based method, eliminating the need for point-specific irradiations.Main results.Average energy resolutions of 14.2%, 14.3%, 15.3%, and 15.4% were achieved for crystals in layers 1 through 4, respectively. DOI and transaxially positioning steps of 4.4 mm, and 2.05 mm, respectively are obtainable based on layer and crystal pitch. The measured axial spatial resolutions were 3.78 mm, 3.84 mm, 4.01 mm, and 4.78 mm full-width-half-maximum for layers 1 through 4, respectively. TOF resolution averaged 196 ± 7 ps for layer 1-1 pair, gradually degrading to 220 ± 17 ps for layer 4-4 pairs.Significance.Balancing performance, scalability, and manufacturability, this detector panel offers a practical and easily calibratable solution for next-generation organ-dedicated PET systems with DOI-TOF capability.

Abstract The long-standing claim of dark matter detection by the DAMA experiment remains a crucial open question in astroparticle physics. A key step towards its independent verification is the development of NaI(Tl)-based detectors with improved sensitivity at low energies. The majority of NaI(Tl)-based experiments rely on conventional photomultiplier tubes (PMTs) as single photon detectors, which present technological limitations in terms of light collection, intrinsic radioactivity and high noise contribution at keV energies. ASTAROTH is an R&D project developing a NaI(Tl)-based detector where the scintillation light is read out by silicon photomultipliers (SiPMs) matrices. SiPMs exhibit high photon detection efficiency, negligible radioactivity, and, most importantly, a dark noise nearly two orders of magnitude lower than PMTs, when operated at cryogenic temperature. To this end, ASTAROTH features a custom-designed cryostat based on a bath of cryogenic fluid, able to safely operate the detector and the read-out electronics down to about 80 K. This work reports the first experimental characterization of an approximately 360 g NaI(Tl) detector read out by a large area (5 cm $$\times $$ × 5 cm) SiPM matrix. The net photoelectron yield obtained with a preliminary configuration is approximately 4.5 photoelectrons/keV after crosstalk correction, which is rather promising in light of several planned developments. The signal-to-noise ratio and the energy threshold attainable with SiPMs is expected to improve the sensitivity for dark matter searches beyond the reach of current-generation PMT-based detectors. This result is the first proof of the viability of this technology and sets a milestone toward the design of future large-scale experiments.

Kinetic monitoring in life sciences is predominantly performed using contactless optical techniques. Miniaturized electronic sensing alternatives typically require direct contact with the sample. We introduce a dual-function thermal actuator/sensor that uniquely combines microwell-independent temperature control of a modified microplate and simultaneous measurement of real-time changes in thermal effusivity, offering both electronic readout and contactless sensing. The performance is demonstrated by monitoring Escherichia coli (E. coli) growth and assessing the effect of cefotaxime (CTX) as a use-case application, benchmarking it against state-of-the-art optical techniques. By qualitative comparison of characteristic data features, we report that the thermal sensing modality showed an increased response signal compared to optical density (OD) measurements in interface-dominated processes, which can be observed under experimental conditions where metabolic or morphological adaptation happens in response to CTX. Additionally, we developed an autonomous full curve data analysis approach for modified Transient Plane Source (mTPS) data, offering high robustness and lower susceptibility to systematic errors and bias. Our technique emphasizes interface-dominant processes, thereby complementing the assessment of bulk properties obtained by traditional optical techniques. The developed thermal interface is reusable, highly integrable, low-cost, easy to use, non-contact, and label-free, offering a versatile platform for bioassay development and dynamic biological studies.

The quality assurance (QA) for particle radiotherapy equipment is crucial to ensure optimal cure rates and minimal treatment side effects for patients. Addressing the QA requirements for heavy-ion and proton radiotherapy devices, this study developed a multi-channel readout electronics system based on Application-Specific Integrated Circuits (ASIC) for rapid Bragg peak detection. This system overcomes technical limitations of traditional readout electronics, such as dead time and slow response speeds, by incorporating the high-precision digital chip ADAS1134. Integrated with FPGA dynamic configuration, Gigabit Ethernet for real-time data transmission, and adaptive host computer parsing algorithms, it establishes a full-chain processing architecture covering signal conditioning, analog-to-digital conversion, and data analysis. Utilizing anti-aliasing filtering and noise shaping techniques, the system achieves synchronous acquisition of 128 channels of weak current (50–700 nA) with a nonlinear error below 0.8%. Beam tests conducted with Bragg peak detectors demonstrated successful acquisition of characteristic Bragg peak signals at carbon ion radiotherapy terminals with energies of 260 MeV/u and 400 MeV/u, achieving a peak position localization accuracy better than 0.2 mm. This electronics system provides a highly integrated and cost-effective readout technical solution for rapid Bragg peak detection in particle radiotherapy equipment, meeting the requirements of QA detection systems for fast readout. The readout system can also be extended to detection systems for beam profile, position, and dose distribution measurements.

High-Pressure Gas Time Projection Chambers (HPgTPCs) have benefits such as low energy thresholds, magnetisability, and 4π acceptance, making them ideal for neutrino experiments such as DUNE. We present the design of an FPGA-based solution optimised for Gaseous Argon Near Detector (ND-GAr), which is part of the Phase-II more capable near detector for DUNE. These electronics reduce the cost significantly compared to using collider readout electronics, which are typically designed for much higher occupancy and therefore, for example, need much larger numbers of FPGAs and power per channel. We demonstrate the performance of our electronics with the Teststand for an Overpressurised Argon Detector (TOAD) at Fermilab in the US at a range of pressures and gas mixtures up to 4.5 barA, reading out ∼10 000 channels from a Multi-Wire Proportional Chamber (MWPC). The operation took place between April and July of 2024. We measure the noise characteristics of the system to be sufficiently low, and we identify sources of noise that can be further mitigated in the next iteration. We also note that the cooling scheme used in the test requires improvement before full-scale deployment. Despite these necessary improvements, we show that the system can fulfil the needs of a HPgTPC for a fraction of the price of collider readout electronics.

We present the design of the COmpact Network of Detectors with Orbital Range (CONDOR), a proposed high-altitude gamma-ray and cosmic-ray (CR) observatory set to become the highest of its kind. Planned for installation at Cerro Toco in the Atacama Desert, Chile, at 5300 meters above sea level (m.a.s.l.), CONDOR is optimized to operate in the 100 GeV to 1 TeV range using the extensive air-shower technique. The design prioritizes simplicity, modularity, and robustness to ensure reliable performance in a harsh environment. The CONDOR array has a fill factor of 90% and consists of 6000 plastic scintillator panels, each approximately 1 m2, read out by wavelength-shifting fibers and SiPMs. The readout electronics are based on flash ADCs, with White Rabbit technology ensuring time synchronization. We present an analysis of angular reconstruction and particle discrimination using CORSIKA-simulated CR showers, developing methods to reconstruct incident angles and distinguish between gamma-ray and proton CR events. CONDOR's exceptional altitude and compact design enable it to meet the target 100 GeV threshold, complementing other ground-based observatories and overlapping with satellite detection ranges. CONDOR has the potential to support an extensive research program in astroparticle physics and multimessenger astronomy from the Southern Hemisphere, operating in all-sky mode 24/7.

Microelectromechanical systems (MEMSs) based gravimeters are a convenient solution for field applications. For some of these devices, their readout relies on measuring the mass displacement using the signal change in a quadrant detector. Reaching a precision at the μGal level depends on having a very high signal-to-noise ratio. In this paper, we present an electronic circuit that achieves an enhanced amplification by continuously removing the offset in the signal. We obtain the extra amplification without reducing the full dynamic range of the sensor and without adding any additional drifts coming from thermal variations.

Since the foundation of CERN in 1954, there have been significant changes in detector technologies which in turn have necessitated big changes in readout and data acquisition electronics. Many of them have taken place since about 1990 during preparations for LHC, profiting especially from the commercial impetus driving the rapid growth of consumer electronics. It is arguable that the most important developments in LHC particle physics detectors were in the electronics area, with increasing use of custom integrated circuits (ASICs) on an enormous scale compared to the past; the application of fibre-optic links, also on a large scale and previously virtually unknown in high energy physics, and rapid advances in programmable digital electronics, culminating in extremely large, powerful FPGAs, which have been exploited for flexible data acquisition and triggering. Using these rapidly-evolving technologies presented formidable technical challenges, fortunately mostly successfully overcome. However, even the largest particle physics applications are still on a very modest scale compared to commercial demands, raising issues such as access to manufacturers at reasonable costs and delivery schedules. The use of electronic circuitry actually predates CERN and some early applications, such as triggering detectors and storing data electronically, are still among those which drive developments today. It is informative to look at some history to try to foresee implications for the future.

The trigger and readout electronics for the ATLAS Thin Gap Chamber (TGC) are being upgraded to meet the requirements of the HL-LHC ATLAS trigger and data acquisition system. We have completed the production of frontend electronics and implemented key functionalities, including Hit Bunch Crossing IDentification, Hit Bitmap formation for each bunch crossing across all channels, serialization of the Hit Bitmap, timing signal distribution, clock phase adjustment, slow control, and FPGA programming. During the year end technical stop of the LHC between 2024 and 2025, we deployed a full-chain slice of the upgraded electronics in an ATLAS detector sector and successfully demonstrated its operation in the cavern. This included verification of control path functionality via optical links from the System-on-Chip device on the backend, an automated configuration scheme, timing distribution with adjustment, and readout of all channels in a sector using test pulse injections with accurate Hit Bunch Crossing IDentification. The setup also incorporated the full infrastructure — fiber network, power supply, and signal cables — identical to the final Phase-2 system. We will present the system design, detailed performance results, and insights gained from the full-system commissioning in the cavern.

The investigation of exotic structures and reaction dynamics in neutron-rich unstable nuclei using radioactive ion beams constitutes a major frontier in nuclear physics. Central to this endeavor is the study of multi-neutron systems and their correlations, which provides critical insights into nuclear interactions, the properties of nuclei at the limits of stability, and the nuclear equation of state governing both nuclear matter and neutron stars. High-resolution, high-efficiency multi-neutron detection equipment is therefore indispensable, and have been extensively deployed at leading international nuclear physics facilities. This work develops the readout electronics for a plastic-scintillator-based multi-neutron detector array coupled with silicon photomultipliers (SiPMs), with the objective of achieving high timing resolution and wide dynamic range. To mitigate the intrinsic high dark-count rate of SiPMs, a novel event-discrimination method based on two-dimensional annular timing maps and convolution is proposed. Based on the newly developed electronics, tests and evaluations have been performed across various types and configurations of SiPMs, providing important guidance for the implementation of a SiPM-based readout method in the multi-neutron detector array.

Hybrid pixel detectors are segmented devices used for X-ray detection, consisting of a sensor attached to the readout electronics. Detectors, working in single-photon counting (SPC) mode, process each incoming photon individually, offer effectively infinite dynamic range, and, by applying energy discrimination, provide low-noise imaging. To improve the spatial resolution of the detector and allow operation with high-intensity photon fluxes, the pixel size is reduced. However, with decreasing pixel size, the charge-sharing effect becomes more severe. This leads to false event registration or missed events, and thus degradation of the energy and position resolution of the detector. Algorithms that mitigate charge sharing have been implemented on-chip [1]. Moreover, the spatial resolution of the detector can be increased beyond the physical pixel size if charge proportions collected by neighboring pixels are analyzed [2,3]. An alternative digital algorithm using an approximation of the inverse error function can be implemented on-chip. This work exploits that sharing to recover subpixel position from local charge proportions and presents a fully digital algorithm suitable for in-pixel implementation. The method uses analog to digital converter (ADC) readings from a 3×3 neighborhood to form directional cumulative sums and maps these to subpixel coordinates via a compact, fixed-point, table-driven piecewise-linear approximation of the inverse error function (erf-1). The subdivision was implemented as synthesizable SystemVerilog RTL and a behavioral analog front-end model provided realistic stimuli. A floating-point reference model was used for prototyping. Simulations show a clear reduction in allocation error relative to baseline SPC — roughly a twofold improvement in both average and worst-case behavior.

Abstract The near detector of T2K is undergoing a major upgrade. New Time Projection Chambers have been constructed, based on innovative resistive Micromegas technology and a field cage made of extremely thin composite walls. Multiple tests of the detectors with charged beams, cosmic rays, and X-rays have been conducted. A detailed physical model has been developed to describe the charge dispersion phenomena in the resistive Micromegas anode. The detailed physical description includes initial ionization, electron drift, diffusion effects, and the effects of readout electronics. The model provides an excellent characterization of the charge spreading of the experimental measurements and allows for the simultaneous extraction of gain and RC information from the modules. Owing to such innovative technologies, the ND280 upgrade will pave the way to observe neutrino interactions with a significant improvement in phase space acceptance and resolution, along with enhanced purity in exclusive channels involving low-momentum protons, pions, and neutrons.

Belle II is a particle physics experiment working at a high luminosity collider that expects a hard irradiation environment in the next few years. The Time-Of-Propagation modules surround the Belle II tracking detector on the barrel part for particle identification. Each module contains a finely fused silica bar, microchannel plate photomultiplier tube (MCP-PMT), and high-speed readout electronics. These MCP-PMTs will have a lifetime of about few years at the nominal luminosity of the accelerator due to the high photon background degrading the quantum efficiency of the photocathode. An alternative to the MCP-PMTs can be silicon photomultipliers (SiPM). The SiPMs, in comparison to MCP-PMTs, have a lower cost and higher photon detection efficiency, but also a higher dark count rate that strongly depends on the accumulated neutron radiation. The dark count rate can be mitigated by annealing the irradiated devices and/or by lowering the temperature. We tested SiPMs from different producers, different dimensions and different cell pitches to understand their functionality and behavior in several conditions, e.g. irradiation up to 5 · 1011 1 MeV neutron equivalent (neq) cm-2 and after strong annealing for 60 days at 150 °C. Dark count rate studies demonstrate significant recovery of the degradation of SiPMs when annealed. In the photon spectra analysis, we are able to extract photon peaks and estimate breakdown voltages, which are consistent in different conditions. In time resolution studies, the SiPMs achieve a 100 ps level, and the results are compatible in all tested conditions.

This paper presents Cosmic X-ray Polarization Detection-Topmetal-M2 (CXPD-M2), a CubeSat electronic system based on the Topmetal-M2 pixel chip, specifically designed for X-ray polarization detection in the 2–10 keV energy range. The CXPD-M2 system comprises both hardware and firmware. The hardware, developed under stringent power and space constraints, adopts a three layer electronic board architecture consisting of a chip bonding board, a front-end signal processing board, and a back-end control board. The firmware not only provides essential communication, device control, and data transmission functionalities but also integrates zero suppression and threshold comparison algorithms within a rolling shutter readout mode for large area pixel arrays, effectively reducing noise while preserving valid particle signals. Experimental validation using alpha-particle and neutron-source demonstrated that, with a 400 × 512 pixel Topmetal-M2 whose readout circuitry was operated at a clock frequency of 20 MHz, the system achieves a 99% reduction in redundant data, confirming its feasibility. This compact and efficient CubeSat based solution for X-ray polarimetry establishes a promising platform for future spaceborne detection applications and offers opportunities for further advancements in pixel chip algorithm integration and optimization.

Silicon carbide (SiC) has been widely adopted in the semiconductor industry, particularly in power electronics, because of its high temperature stability, high breakdown field, and fast switching speeds. Its wide bandgap makes it an interesting candidate for radiation-hard particle detectors in high-energy physics and medical applications. Furthermore, the high electron and hole drift velocities in 4H-SiC enable devices suitable for ultra-fast particle detection and timing applications. However, currently, the front-end readout electronics used for 4H-SiC detectors constitute a bottleneck in investigations of the charge carrier drift. To address these limitations, a high-frequency readout board with an intrinsic bandwidth of 10 GHz was developed. With this readout, the transient current signals of a 4H-SiC diode with a diameter of 141 μm and a thickness of 50 μm upon UV laser, alpha particle, and high-energy proton beam excitation were recorded. In all three cases, the electron and hole drift can clearly be separated, which enables the extraction of the charge carrier drift velocities as a function of the electric field. These velocities, directly measured for the first time, provide a valuable comparison to Monte Carlo-simulated literature values and constitute an essential input for TCAD simulations. Finally, a complete simulation environment combining TCAD, the Allpix2 framework, and SPICE simulations is presented, which is in good agreement with the measured data.

PurposeTo present a portable, reliable, and fast setup graphite calorimeter for onsite absolute dose measurements at hospitals.MethodsWe have designed and built a portable graphite calorimeter optimized for fast setup and accurate measurements at clinical centers. Our system has minimum readout and auxiliary electronics and is inserted in a water fillable phantom in which chamber holders can be positioned in order to perform chamber calibrations at user's beam quality. System operation parameters were adjusted to obtain thermal equilibrium in minimum time. Our system accuracy was validated by inter‐comparison against the National Physical Laboratory (NPL) Primary Standard. Also, its portability and reliability have been tested during a measurement campaign in hospitals.ResultsOptimization of system operation parameters together with an appropriate design yielded a fully portable, fast and easy‐to‐set‐up system with only 3 h treatment room occupation time. The system exhibits thermal stability of ± 100 µK and a maximum temperature drift of 60 µK/min, allowing for precise measurements with few repetitions. Mean relative local deviation between chambers calibrated by NPL calorimeter and our calorimeter was 0.1% demonstrating our system accuracy. We measured beam quality correction factors for four chamber types and performed a successful measurement campaign in five hospitals.ConclusionsWe have developed an accurate absolute dosimeter that can be used for the determination of beam quality correction factors at clinical sites with minimal disruption of hospital workload.

Chronic wounds present a major healthcare challenge, requiring continuous monitoring of biochemical markers to guide treatment .1 Key wound infection/healing biomarkers include pH, inflammatory cytokines like interleukin-6 (IL-6), metabolic byproducts such as uric acid (UA), and indicators of infection such as bacterial metabolites. 2–4 In particular, UA – the terminal purine catabolite – has been found to elevate in chronic wound fluid, correlating with wound severity .5 Likewise, Pseudomonas aeruginosa (P. aeruginosa), a common wound pathogen, secretes the phenazine pyocyanin (PYO) which is a known virulence factor in human infections .6 Given redox activity of PYO, its electrochemical detection offers a rapid, culture-free means to identify P. aeruginosa directly in wound exudate .7 While recent advances in flexible electronics have enabled “smart” wound dressings with integrated sensors and on-demand therapy,8,9 simultaneous detection of UA, PYO, IL-6, and pH using a compact device remains elusive. Herein, we report a multimodal sensing platform built entirely on laser-induced graphene (LIG) for electrochemical detection of these wound biomarkers in wound simulating medium (WSM) as well as an in vitro infected wound model.The LIG sensors were fabricated on polyimide and their response to each biomarker was benchmarked for various functionalization processes to optimize the electrode material. The sensing chip involves multimodal readout integrating differential pulse voltammetry (DPV for UA and PYO), open-circuit potential (OCP for pH), and an extended-gate field-effect transistor10(EGFET for IL-6) configuration. Performance was evaluated in phosphate-buffered saline (PBS), WSM, and agar-infused WSM to mimic tissue conditions. The sensors demonstrated stable and sensitive detection in various media. UA and PYO were detected in the low micromolar range and the polyaniline-based pH sensor showed good reversibility across a physiologically relevant range. IL-6 detection was achieved with reliable performance in both liquid and gel-based media, with results influenced by the LIG structure. These findings advance the development of smart wound care technologies by validating sensor function in realistic wound models. They also lay the groundwork for the next steps, including interfacing the sensor array with portable readout electronics and evaluating its performance in controlled infection models (e.g., wounds inoculated with P. aeruginosa). In the long term, the proposed LIG sensor platform could enable early detection of wound infection and better management of chronic wounds through continuous, multiplexed biomarker monitoring.