Reading fluency is a key component of literacy development and an important indicator of reading comprehension and academic achievement. However, traditional fluency assessment methods are often time-consuming, difficult to scale, and dependent on subjective evaluation procedures, limiting their use in large-scale educational contexts. This study proposes a multilayer educational framework for automated reading fluency assessment that integrates audio processing, fluency indicator computation, and interpretive modeling within a structured assessment system. The proposed framework conceptualizes fluency assessment as a multilayer process that transforms oral reading audio into interpretable educational outputs through successive stages of acoustic processing, indicator computation, interpretive modeling, and feedback generation. This architecture allows fluency to be evaluated as a multidimensional construct, including reading rate, temporal continuity, pausing patterns, and rhythmic features, rather than relying on single metrics such as words per minute. The system is designed to support classroom assessment, large-scale literacy evaluation, and formative feedback processes by providing scalable, consistent, and interpretable fluency assessments. The study outlines the conceptual foundations of the framework, describes its system architecture, and discusses its potential applications in educational assessment and literacy development monitoring. The findings suggest that multilayer automated assessment systems can contribute to more efficient, scalable, and pedagogically meaningful approaches to reading fluency assessment, supporting data-informed decision-making in educational contexts.

Psychometrically robust Persian reading assessments are limited, particularly tools that simultaneously measure oral reading rate, accuracy, and comprehension. This study introduces and evaluates the psychometric properties of the assessment tool KHANA-2, consisting of two parallel booklets (A and B) with grade-appropriate passages. Content and face validity were confirmed by 20 experts. The sample included 260 typically developing readers and 15 students suspected of reading disorder in elementary students Grades 2–6. Reading rate, accuracy, and comprehension were assessed. A Multivariatelinear mixed model (MLMM) examined differences across grade levels, reading-status groups, and gender. Pearson correlations evaluated associations among components, and reliability was estimated using intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC), Cronbach’s alpha, and paired-sample t-tests comparing booklet performance. KHANA-2 showed strong construct validity, significantly differentiating performance across grade levels and between typically developing readers and those suspected of reading disorder (p < 0.001), with no gender effects (p > 0.05). Reading time and errors were positively correlated across booklets (r = .66–.68; p < .001), while both were negatively correlated with comprehension (r = −0.24 to −0.30; p < 0.001). Internal consistency ranged from α = 0.81–0.93 for rate, α = 0.58–0.82 for accuracy, and α = 0.32–0.65 for comprehension. Inter- and intra-rater reliability were excellent (ICC > 0.95). Although accuracy differed slightly between booklets (p = 0.002, d = 0.19), ICCs (0.77–0.85) supported parallel-form equivalence. Overall, KHANA-2 is a valid and reliable tool for assessing oral reading skills in Persian-speaking students in Grades 2–6.

Reading is a task that engages the vision–language interface, and the efficiency of this process may be related to how much of the text readers use to process visual and/or linguistic information during a fixation (i.e., their reading span size). Compared with typically hearing readers, deaf signers both read more efficiently (i.e., faster with equivalent comprehension) and have wider reading spans, suggesting a critical role for span size in reading efficiency. Using a linear regression analysis, we assessed the effects of two different span sizes (the word identification span, within which readers extract linguistic information, and the perceptual span, within which they extract the visuospatial layout) and reading comprehension ability on reading rate for deaf signers (n = 50) and hearing non-signers (n = 109). For all readers, those with a larger word identification span read faster, but this relationship was weaker for the perceptual span, emphasizing the importance of parafoveal linguistic processing for reading speed. The effect of the word identification span was stronger for the deaf group, and only deaf signers showed a positive relationship between reading comprehension ability and reading rate (and word identification span size). These findings suggest that reading efficiency (exemplified by deaf signers) derives from an ability to extract linguistic information far from fixation in a way that supports both reading speed and comprehension.

While research on the predictors of reading and reading comprehension is extensive in child and in some adult populations, particularly in alphabetic languages, few studies have examined such factors among Arabic-speaking adults. This study examined the extent to which the same linguistic and cognitive predictors contribute to reading accuracy, rate and comprehension among university students. A total of 120 young adults (aged 18–32) completed a battery of tests to examine their reading skills, phonological awareness (PA), rapid automatized naming (RAN), morphological knowledge, executive functions and verbal long-term memory. Stepwise regression analyses were conducted on reading abilities. We hypothesized that PA, RAN, morphological awareness, and working memory will significantly predict reading accuracy and fluency, and to some extent, reading comprehension. Our results indicated that PA emerged as the strongest predictor of reading accuracy, while RAN most significantly predicted reading speed. Reading comprehension, however, was best predicted by a combination of phonological and morphological abilities, along with inhibitory control and long-term memory. These findings fill a gap in literature and shed light on the linguistic and cognitive mechanisms underlying adult reading skills in Arabic, a language with a complex orthographic system and diglossic situation. The results of this study are discussed in the light of previous reading literature. We propose that additional research, including other linguistic, cognitive and psycho-social factors, will be needed to gain a deeper understanding of the interplay between factors that influence reading in a language with unique linguistic features.

Objectives: To investigate the characteristics of hypokinetic dysarthria in Parkinson’s disease (PD), we compared and analyzed changes in temporal and articulatory speech characteristics occurring during the early and late phases of a paragraph reading task.Methods: Twenty PD patients at Hoehn and Yahr stage 2 and 20 age- and gender-matched healthy elderly adults (HE) performed a paragraph reading task. The entire paragraph was divided into early and late sections. Temporal indicators (reading rate, articulation rate, pause ratio, pause frequency) and articulatory indicators (consonant accuracy, speech intelligibility) were calculated. Mixed ANOVA was used to verify differences between groups and phases.Results: The PD group exhibited significantly slower reading and articulation rates compared to the HE group. The PD group exhibited a significant increase in pause frequency toward the late phase, which can be interpreted as a result of worsening under-articulation due to motor fatigue from sustained speech production. Furthermore, while the HE group showed no difference in consonant accuracy between phases, the PD group demonstrated a significant decrease in consonant accuracy in the late phase.Conclusion: PD patients exhibited a characteristic decline in reading endurance, marked by increased pausing frequency and reduced consonant accuracy toward the end of paragraphs. This suggests that the reduced communication efficiency in PD patients stems from deficits in the motor maintenance ability required to sustain speech accuracy. Therefore, clinical practice should emphasize dynamic assessment observing performance changes based on fatigue levels and intervention approaches aimed at improving speech endurance.

This study examined associations between vocabulary knowledge, reading fluency, cognitive flexibility, and metacognitive monitoring accuracy in reading comprehension among fifth-grade students. Participants (N = 104) completed measures of cognitive-linguistic abilities and reading comprehension, with global metacomprehension judgments after reading and item-level confidence ratings. Metacognitive monitoring accuracy was assessed using calibration of global metacomprehension judgments and item-level confidence ratings. Calibration bias (confidence minus performance) indexed miscalibration direction, and its absolute value indexed calibration accuracy. Resolution reflected discrimination between correct and incorrect item-level responses. Structural equation modeling (SEM) was used exploratorily to examine theoretically motivated direct and indirect pathways via reading comprehension. Vocabulary knowledge showed the strongest associations with calibration accuracy and resolution, fully mediated by comprehension. Reading fluency showed a dual pattern: it contributed positively to resolution through comprehension, while also showing direct associations with lower calibration accuracy, indicating greater miscalibration and overconfident judgment tendencies among more fluent readers. Cognitive flexibility was not significantly related to any monitoring index. By jointly examining distinct indices of monitoring accuracy and separating comprehension-mediated from direct pathways, the study clarifies how cognitive-linguistic abilities may support or bias metacognitive monitoring in developing readers. Linguistic abilities, particularly vocabulary and fluency were central to students' comprehension monitoring accuracy.

This study aims to analyze the differentiate the usage patterns of the native Korean verb ‘(chaegeul) ikda’ and ‘dokseo(hada)’. For this purpose, examples were collected from the National Institute of Korean Language Korean Newspaper Corpus (2021, ver. 1.0) and examined through an inductive analysis. On the basis of the corpus findings, five criteria for distinguishing near-synonymous expressions were established: (1) degree of concreteness of the act, (2) purposiveness, (3) semantic extensibility, (4) types of contexts and (5) constraints of lexical use. The results show that ‘(chaegeul) ikda’ not only denotes the act of reading books and other texts, but also exhibits semantic derivation and extension in expressions such as ‘heureum-eul ikda (to read the flow)’, ‘jeongse-reul ikda(to read the situation)’, and ‘cho-ikgi(countdown)’. In contrast, ‘dokseo(hada)’ refers to a sustained and comprehensive learning activity and is frequently associated with purposes such as cultivating cultural literacy or enhancing thinking skills. It is especially widespread in noun-centered compound forms such as ‘dokseoyul(reading rate)’, ‘dokseo-toron(book discussion)’, and ‘dokseo-seupgwan(reading habits)’. Despite this wide range of formations, the object of ‘dokseo’ is found to converge on printed books. These findings indicate that, even when native Korean and Sino-Korean expressions appear to be semantically similar, they exhibit differentiated patterns of use in terms of collocation, constraints, and discourse functions. This study is significant in that it differentiated near-synonymous expressions on the basis of corpus data and provides foundational resources that can help Korean language learners use Korean vocabulary with greater precision.

ABSTRACT Purpose This study investigates whether the natural reading rate aligns with the rate optimal for reading comprehension. Challenging the speed-accuracy trade-off, it asks how manipulated reading speeds affect comprehension and eye movements in readers. It explores individual differences in reading ability to determine their impact on adaptability to speed changes. Method A total of 46 native English-speaking students (37 female [80.4%], 8 male [17.4%], 1 other [2.2%]; mean age = 19.82 years) were asked to read English texts at a range of speeds, with some significantly exceeding the average natural reading rate. The reading speed was manipulated using a novel line-by-line method of text enhancement within a page. Results Comprehension remained consistent across a broad range of speeds, with notable declines observed only at 405 words per minute. Individual differences in reading proficiency were found to influence text comprehension. Those who were faster readers and those with a higher word reading efficiency demonstrated superior maintenance of comprehension at elevated speeds. Eye movements showed efficient adaptation, particularly in later measures, while word length, frequency and surprisal effects remained fully intact. Conclusion The findings challenge the notion of a speed-accuracy trade-off in reading, showing that eye movements are adaptable and that skilled adult readers can sustain effective comprehension at rates above their preferred reading speed.

In this study, it was aimed to determine the reading speed, phonological awareness and word recognition levels of primary school students at the beginning of the process of learning to read, the relationships between these variables and the role of reading speed in the longitudinal development observed in the first and second grades. In order to examine the reading skills of primary school students according to various variables, predictive design, one of the relational research types, was used in the study. The study group consisted of 32 students. In the analysis of the research data, descriptive statistics of the variables were followed by relational analysis. The results of the study showed that the second grade reading rate of the students was higher than the first grade reading rate, and that the first grade reading rate and word recognition skill variables were significant predictors of the second grade reading rate. These two variables together explain the majority of the change in second grade reading speed. This situation was interpreted as second grade students' reading skills continued to improve, they recognized words more easily, but the contribution of phonological awareness to the process decreased unlike the beginning of the first reading process.

Atrial fibrillation is the most common sustained cardiac arrhythmia, associated with considerable morbidity and mortality. Early detection is essential for optimal management. While wearable smart devices have shown promise, smartphone applications using photoplethysmography have also emerged as potential screening tools, but their diagnostic accuracy has not been adequately validated. This study aimed to compare the diagnostic performance of two commercially available photoplethysmography-based smartphone applications. In this prospective multicentre study, consecutive patients from three cardiology centres underwent simultaneous recordings with the FibriCheck® and Preventicus Heartbeats® applications and a 12-lead electrocardiogram during hospital admission or outpatient evaluation. Electrocardiograms were independently interpreted by blinded cardiologists. Diagnostic accuracy, rate of inconclusive recordings, technical performance, features, and pricing were compared between the two applications. A total of 206 patients (median age 69.5 years, 64.1% male) with 216 electrocardiograms were analysed; atrial fibrillation was present in 43.1%. Successful photoplethysmography recordings were obtained in 97.7% of FibriCheck (mean attempts 1.2 ± 0.7) and 87.5% of Preventicus Heartbeats (1.6 ± 1.3) measurements. Sensitivity and specificity were 89.0% and 100.0% for FibriCheck, and 86.4% and 99.0% for Preventicus Heartbeats. Inconclusive reading rates (where the algorithm indicated a suspicion of mild arrhythmia) were 8.5% and 11.1%, respectively. Both smartphone applications demonstrated high and comparable diagnostic accuracy for atrial fibrillation detection in a real-world population. These tools represent a viable, non-invasive option for early rhythm screening and follow-up, potentially improving patient outcomes, although further refinement is needed to reduce inconclusive recordings.

Time's Up! The End of ESSER Funding and the Future of Illinois School Districts

Wayfinding difficulties, such as disorientation, remain persistent challenges in complex indoor and underground environments. Well-designed guide sign layouts offer an effective and cost-efficient solution. This study introduces a vision-driven pedestrian agent model, VD25, developed to quantitatively evaluate sign layouts in three-dimensional (3D) spaces. The model incorporates a refined sign detection mechanism applying visual catchment contour and simulates wayfinding behaviors on 3D walkable surface by switching between free-exploratory and sign-following movements. Validation using a multi-level metro station environment with a walking distance of approximately 100 m, shows strong correlations between sign read rates and those measured in virtual reality and real-space experiments (correlation coefficients of 0.899 and 0.814, respectively). The model also shows good agreement in walking distance and path selection. Moreover, simulations using alternative sign layouts and sensitivity analyses across diverse pedestrian populations highlight the VD25 model's potential to assist architects and facility managers in improve guide sign designs.

Dyslexia is a lifelong condition whose manifestations change with age (Davies et al., 2017). Although dyslexia may present differently in adulthood than in early childhood, the associated difficulties persist, particularly in reading accuracy, reading rate, and comprehension. These difficulties are particularly pronounced when reading pseudowords, unfamiliar words, or complex texts, and they are often accompanied by a persistent lack of self-correction (Pedersen et al., 2016; Provazza et al., 2019; Re et al., 2011; Reis et al., 2020). However, little is known about the characteristics of dyslexia in adulthood, particularly in languages with transparent orthographies (Reis et al., 2020). The aim of this study was to investigate the characteristics of adults with dyslexia in reference to reading aloud in Croatian, a language with transparent orthography. The study included 14 participants: 7 people with dyslexia (PwD) and 7 typical readers (TR, control group). The results indicate that PwD showed poorer performance than TR when reading pseudowords, real words, and texts, since they make more types and number of errors and are less inclined to correct these errors. However, the most persistent and striking feature of dyslexia in adulthood continues to be slow reading. This is consistent with the results of several studies based on transparent languages (e.g., Re et al., 2011; Reis et al., 2020, Suárez-Coalla &amp; Cuetos, 2015). In the group of PwD, substitutions, omissions, and additions of graphemes and morphemes were most frequent, followed by substitutions of whole words. The error patterns of most participants indicate so-called phonological dyslexia.

This study investigated the functional visual impact of simulated astigmatic blur using cylindrical powers of 0.50 D, 1.00 D, and 2.00 D, applied in against-the-rule (ATR), with-the-rule (WTR), and oblique (OBL) axes, in adults aged 18 to 35 years with no known ocular disease. Forty-five young adults were randomly divided into three groups (n = 15). Binocular best-corrected visual acuity (distance and near) was recorded in logMAR using the ETDRS acuity chart at 5 m and 40 cm, supported by acuity optotypes displayed in a Bailey–Lovie chart format. Depth-fusion and disparity discrimination were measured using polarized stereopsis thresholds with the Randot® Stereo Test from Stereo Optical Company, Inc. Reading performance was quantified as a continuous binocular rate metric (words per minute) using the validated Portuguese digital reading curve provided by the MNREAD iPad App by Precision Vision at 40 cm. The results were preserved verbatim as follows: Distance and near BCVA were significantly affected by ATR astigmatisms (−0.50 + 1.00 90°, −1.00 + 2.00 90°), WTR astigmatisms (−0.25 + 0.50 180°, −0.50 + 1.00 180°, −1.00 + 2.00 180°), and OBL astigmatisms (OD: −0.25 + 0.50 45°, OS: −0.25 + 0.50 135°; OD: −0.50 + 1.00 45°, OS: −0.50 + 1.00 135°; OD: −1.00 + 2.00 45°, OS: −1.00 + 2.00 135°). Stereopsis was significantly influenced by high-power OBL astigmatism (−1.00 + 2.00). Reading rate was also negatively impacted by OBL astigmatisms ≥1.00 D. Simulated astigmatism of different powers and axes reduced high-contrast distance and near BCVA, stereopsis, and reading speed in adults aged 18–35 years. Higher-power astigmatism, particularly along oblique axes, caused the most significant functional impairment.

ABSTRACT This research aimed to develop a test to assess adult fluent reading skills and examine miscues and reading components in Turkish. The study consisted of two phases. First, Adult Fluent Reading Test development includes identifying subtests, content and face validity. After the main procedure, confirmatory and exploratory factor analyses, structural validity analyses and reliability analyses were conducted. Second, age‐related scores and miscue types were examined. Phase 1 indicated a single‐factor structure for each test. High internal consistency and inter‐ and intra‐rater reliabilities were observed. During Phase 2, the most common miscue patterns included omissions in text reading, repetitions in word reading and substitutions in nonword reading. The findings revealed a positive correlation between age and miscue scores, accompanied by a negative correlation with reading rate. The Adult Fluent Reading Test yielded valid and reliable data, identifying miscue types in text, word and nonword reading, along with fluent reading components.

Children with amblyopia read slower than their peers during binocular viewing. Ocular motor dysfunction typical of amblyopia may cause slow reading. It is unclear whether this is due to fixation instability or increased forward saccades. We examined whether removing the requirement of inter-word saccades helps children with amblyopia read at a similar rate as controls using a rapid serial visual presentation (RSVP) task. We also assessed whether reading rate was related to fixation instability. Children with amblyopia (n=32) and control (n=30) children ages 8-12years silently read sentences presented in RSVP (single word presentation at screen center) during binocular viewing. Exposure time per sentence changed with a 2-down 1-up staircase to obtain reading speed thresholds (log words/minute [WPM]). Eye movements were tracked to determine fellow eye (FE) and amblyopic eye (AE) fixation stability during RSVP reading. Children with amblyopia read slower than controls (2.75±0.47 log WPM vs 3.06±0.40 log WPM), and had increased AE fixation instability (0.21±0.39 log deg2 vs-0.20±0.18 log deg2) and increased FE fixation instability (-0.03±0.34 log deg2 vs-0.20±0.15 log deg2) during RSVP reading. Reading rate in amblyopic children with good FE stability (n=11) did not differ from controls and was faster than those with poor FE stability (n = 21). Children with poor FE stability read slower than controls. Removing the need for inter-word saccades (i.e., RSVP reading) did not help children with amblyopia read at control speeds. Our data support FE fixation instability as a source of slow reading in amblyopia.

Both deafness and sign language experience impact the distribution of visual attention, and either factor could affect reading span size, the area around fixation from which useful information is obtained. In contrast to the typical asymmetrical span (smaller on the left), deaf signers have a larger leftward span than skill-matched hearing readers. We investigated whether this enhanced span is due to changes in visual attention associated with early deafness or sign language experience (right-handed signs fall in the left periphery). A gaze-contingent moving-window paradigm was used to assess the leftward reading span of hearing early signers, deaf early signers, and hearing nonsigners with similar reading abilities. The size of the leftward span for deaf and hearing signers was the same (10 characters) and was larger than that of hearing nonsigners (4 characters). Thus, sign language experience appears to be at least one source of the larger leftward span in deaf signers. However, deaf signers were more efficient readers than both hearing groups (faster reading rate, more skipped words, fewer regressions), suggesting that their greater reading efficiency does not stem solely from a larger leftward span.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate higher-order visual processing and executive function in adults with amblyopia and/or strabismus under habitual binocular viewing conditions and to explore their association with functional capabilities and vision-related quality of life (VRQOL). This study included 114 adults (23 with amblyopia, 52 with amblyopia and strabismus, 20 with strabismus, and 19 healthy controls). Assessments included visual acuity and binocular function score (BFS), visuo-cognitive tests (Useful Field of View [UFOV], Trail Making Test [TMT], and Stroop Color and Word Test [SCWT]), and functional tests (fine motor skills [FMS] and reading rate). Group differences were evaluated using ANOVA, and regression models assessed the contribution of clinical and cognitive measures to functional outcomes and VRQOL. Performance significantly varied across groups (F(3,108) = 753, P < 0.001), for all three visuo-cognitive tests (UFOV F(3,108) = 2.982, P = 0.034; TMT F(3,108) = 5.289, P = 0.002; and SCWT F(3,108) = 4.068, P = 0.009). Adults with amblyopia and/or strabismus had significantly slower completion times on UFOV, TMT, and SCWT compared with healthy controls (P < 0.05), with pronounced deficits in divided attention, visual search, and cognitive flexibility. Performance among the three visuo-cognitive tests was strongly correlated (r's³ = 0.7, P = 0.01). Regression analyses revealed that SCWT times significantly predicted FMS and reading speed, explaining 42% and 31% of the variance, respectively. Psychosocial VRQOL scores were significantly influenced by the presence of strabismus (P = 0.001), whereas functional impact scores were associated with BFS (P = 0.04) and UFOV times (P = 0.02). Amblyopia and/or strabismus in adults are associated with executive function deficits, poorer functional performance, and reduced VRQOL. These findings highlight the long-term visuo-cognitive and functional consequences of abnormal visual development and underscore the need for targeted interventions.

Abstract Introduction: The current research project subsumes a vibrant analysis of the convoluted essence of reading comprehension, with the aim of exploring the diverse deficits learners encounter to assimilate texts in law in the English language at the Faculty of Law and Political Sciences, University of Bejaia, Algeria. Then, it attempts to find possible remedial solutions for a particular subset of foreign language learners, law students, to whom tasks on legal English pose dreadful pitfalls. Methods: We have employed the experimental method, using an analytic, quantitative approach. Results: The study has revealed the effectiveness of an interactive reading approach using computer-based instruction in addressing learners’ difficulties in comprehending legal English texts, particularly in groups five and six (the experimental groups). The technique has appreciably affected how much time our applicants need to comprehend texts on legal English and how much they understand. Discussion: The experiment has examined the impact of computer-assisted instruction on comprehension rate, micro, and macro skills. The essence of the technique’s noteworthy influence involves adopting the interactive reading approach, timed readings, integrating ICT devices, taxonomies of various types of questions that engage both bottom-up and top-down abilities, and maintaining regularity. This confirms the two hypotheses that address the primary issue of this investigation. Limitations: Learners’ language interference between French and English has allowed for the transfer of reading strategies and skills, potentially impacting their processing of texts and biasing the outcome of this inquiry. Conclusions: This research study advocates the integration of ICT devices in teaching English for law texts to university students. Moreover, it highlights the need to shift from the Ptolemaic view of reading comprehension, which focuses on comprehension levels and neglects readers’ reading rate.

The Programme for International Student Assessment 2022 revealed the low performance of the Philippines in terms of literacy which means that Filipino learners are having difficulty comprehending the text that they are reading. This study examines the correlates and the factors that affect the reading comprehension performance of selected Grade 10 learners from the province of Rizal enrolled in SY 2024-2025 through different reading assessments. Descriptive-correlational method was used to identify the correlates and a qualitative discussion through case study to identify the factors. Results showed that only 14% (R²=0.140) of the variance is explained by the two predictors which indicates a weak correlation between the predictor and the outcome variable. It was also revealed that students under low performing reading level are having difficulty in reading comprehension because they are having difficulty in reading rate. This means that slow reading, which takes a lot of energy from them, can actually affect the way they understand the text. These findings suggest that there is a need for more intensified and contextualized reading assessments at the secondary level