Re-emerging Zoonosis Research Articles

Is therapeutic plasma exchange effective in leptospirosis-associated severe pulmonary haemorrhagic syndrome? A systematic review.

Leptospirosis is a re-emerging zoonosis fast becoming a global burden. Pulmonary haemorrhages are a deadly complication, with case fatality rates >50%. Systemic vasculitis is thought to be the pathological process responsible for pulmonary haemorrhages and therapeutic plasma exchange (TPE) is one of the treatments offered. This systematic review aims to evaluate the effectiveness of TPE in managing leptospirosis-associated severe pulmonary haemorrhagic syndrome (SPHS). A systematic review was conducted using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis protocol. The search used Medical Subject Headings in PubMed with keywords 'Leptospirosis' OR 'Leptospira' OR 'Weil disease' AND 'plasmapheresis' OR 'plasma exchange' AND 'pulmonary haemorrhage' OR 'alveolar haemorrhage'. The search was widened to include the Google Scholar database. The review was confined to English-language articles and focused on primary research studies. Nineteen articles were considered for analysis. There were no randomized controlled trials. A non-randomized trial and a retrospective cohort documented recovery following adjuvant TPE treatment. Most case reports mention significant improvement and complete recovery following administration of TPE. One case reported the death of a patient despite treatment. However, this review revealed a lack of strong evidence endorsing the routine application of TPE as a therapeutic intervention for cases of SPHS. Thus we recommend the initiation of a well-structured randomized controlled trial to ensure an accurate assessment of the efficacy of TPE.

Insights into Leptospira spp. infection in pet cats in Croatia: Clinical, serological and molecular findings with emphasis on the potential important role of serogroup Pomona

Leptospirosis, a globally re-emerging zoonosis caused by pathogenic Leptospira spp., poses a significant threat to public health. Leptospirosis in cats is often neglected due to its high underdiagnosis. Therefore, the role of cats in disease transmission and bacterial maintenance in the environment remains unclear. For this study, 54 serum samples, 54 urine samples and 27 EDTA-anticoagulated blood samples from pet cats presenting to the Veterinary Teaching Hospital due to health problems were used. The serum samples were tested for antibodies against 12 pathogenic serovars of Leptospira spp. using the microscopic agglutination test (MAT). EDTA-anticoagulated blood and urine samples were tested for the lipL32 gene of pathogenic Leptospira spp. by conventional (PCR) and real-time (qPCR) polymerase chain reaction. Agglutinating antibodies were detected in 18.52% (10/54) of the sera with a titre range of 1:50 to 1:12800. The most common serogroup was Pomona, followed by Sejroe, Icterohaemorrhagiae, Australis and Javanica. Leptospira spp. DNA was found in 1.85% (1/54) of the urine samples, while all EDTA-anticoagulated blood samples were negative. A statistically significant difference in seropositivity regarding lifestyle was found between outdoor/indoor and indoor-only cats, while the presence of another cat in the household significantly increased the likelihood of seropositivity. Cats with immunocompromising conditions showed a significantly increased risk of seropositivity, especially those undergoing immunosuppressive treatment. In addition, respiratory signs and changes in lung structure associated with the presence of leptospiral antibodies, and these cats were more likely to be infected with the Pomona serogroup. Moreover, cats with anaemia, leucocytosis, and thrombocytopenia were significantly more likely to have antibodies against Leptospira spp., while seropositive cats had significantly lower urine-specific gravity compared to seronegative cats. The results underline the importance of raising awareness of feline leptospirosis in veterinary care and recognising pet cats as potential carriers of leptospires. Further research is needed to clarify the specific role of the Pomona serogroup as a potentially highly evolutionary drifting serogroup in terms of pathogenicity and to clarify the zoonotic potential of infected cats, which is crucial for the implementation of effective public health measures and veterinary interventions.

Modern aspects of rabies in Cameroon

The article presents the results of an epidemiological study of the incidence of rabies in the population of the Republic of Cameroon in the period from 2014 to 2022. The system of epidemiological surveillance and monitoring of rabies in Cameroon is presented. According to WHO, human and animal rabies is recognized as endemic to Central Africa as a whole, and in Cameroon, in particular, this infectious goiter is classified as the first priority zoonosis within the framework of the National Program for the Prevention and Control of Recurrent and Re-emerging Zoonosis (PNPLZER). The average annual incidence of rabies recorded between 2014 and 2022 was 405.7% (95% CI: 401.9% – 409.5%). Based on the results of a retrospective epidemiological analysis, the dynamics of rabies cases among people in Cameroon is presented in accordance with data recorded at the Operational Center for Public Health Emergencies (CCOUSP). The highest rates were recorded in the period from 2018 (547.4%) to 2019 (276.8%), and the lowest in 2021 (10.7%) to 2022 (3.1%). To identify socio-demographic risk factors, a survey of rabies foci was conducted using specially designed questionnaires (epidemiological information collection cards). Mapping of registered cases of rabies in humans was carried out for 10 administrative regions of the country using the LTR QGIS (quantum GIS) program, which allowed us to show the distribution of cases across the country and dynamics over time. It has been established that the distribution of cases of the disease across the territory does not always depend on the population density in administrative districts, but is associated with specific socio-demographic risk factors such as profession, gender, age, type of animal reservoir of the virus, which affect the activity of the pathogen circulation among natural hosts.

Assessing leptospirosis and toxoplasmosis seropositivity in wild boars (Sus scrofa): Implications for public and animal health in Southern Brazil

Leptospirosis and toxoplasmosis are re-emerging zoonosis caused by infection with pathogenic spirochaetes of Leptospira and the protozoa Toxoplasma gondii, respectively. Wild boars (Sus scrofa), an exotic invasive species in Brazil, could play a role in the diseases’ epidemiological cycles, but this issue is still unexplored. This study aimed to evaluate the Leptospira spp. and T. gondii seropositivity in wild boars in Rio Grande do Sul state, south Brazil. Of evaluated animals, 16% (13/80) and 85% (52/61) had antibodies to T. gondii and Leptospira spp., respectively. Sex, weight, age, hunt location and season of hunt were evaluated by their association with seropositivity for both pathogens, but none of them had statistical significance. This study revealed that wild boars should be considered as a potential source of Leptospira spp. and T. gondii dissemination for humans and animal species in shared environments in Rio Grande do Sul state.

Genomic Characterization of a Dog-Mediated Rabies Outbreak in El Pedregal, Arequipa, Peru.

Rabies, a re-emerging zoonosis with the highest known human case fatality rate, has been largely absent from Peru, except for endemic circulation in the Puno region on the Bolivian border and re-emergence in Arequipa City in 2015, where it has persisted. In 2021, an outbreak occurred in the rapidly expanding city of El Pedregal near Arequipa, followed by more cases in 2022 after nearly a year of epidemiological silence. While currently under control, questions persist regarding the origin of the El Pedregal outbreak and implications for maintaining rabies control in Peru. We sequenced 25 dog rabies virus (RABV) genomes from the El Pedregal outbreak (n=11) and Arequipa City (n=14) from 2021-2023 using Nanopore sequencing in Peru. Historical genomes from Puno (n=4, 2010-2012) and Arequipa (n=5, 2015-2019), were sequenced using an Illumina approach in the UK. In total, 34 RABV genomes were analyzed, including archived and newly obtained samples. The genomes were analyzed phylogenetically to understand the outbreak's context and origins. Phylogenomic analysis identified two genetic clusters in El Pedregal: 2021 cases stemmed from a single introduction unrelated to Arequipa cases, while the 2022 sequence suggested a new introduction from Arequipa rather than persistence. In relation to canine RABV diversity in Latin America, all new sequences belonged to a new minor clade, Cosmopolitan Am5, sharing relatives from Bolivia, Argentina, and Brazil. Genomic insights into the El Pedregal outbreak revealed multiple introductions over a 2-year window. Eco-epidemiological conditions, including migratory worker patterns, suggest human-mediated movement drove introductions. Despite outbreak containment, El Pedregal remains at risk of dog-mediated rabies due to ongoing circulation in Arequipa, Puno, and Bolivia. Human-mediated movement of dogs presents a major risk for rabies re-emergence in Peru, jeopardizing regional dog-mediated rabies control. Additional sequence data is needed for comprehensive phylogenetic analyses.

Spatiotemporal analysis and clinico-epidemiological study for seroprevalence of canine leptospirosis.

Leptospirosis is a worldwide re-emerging zoonotic disease. The study was conducted to estimate the Seroprevalence of canine leptospirosis in a total of 450 dogs, from a total of 97 puppies and 353 adult dogs selected for examination Sampling, started from January to December 2023 in District Kasur in the province Punjab of the country Pakistan. Leptospira IgG ELISA kit manufactured by DRG Instruments GmbH, Germany was used for the screening of canine Leptospira antibodies. Out of 450 tested dogs, 183 dogs (40.67%) were tested positive for Leptospira antibody for the screening of Leptospira antibodies. The estimated Seroprevalence of leptospirosis in various age groups of dogs, were 23.7% (23/97) and 45.3% (160/353), in puppies and adults, respectively (P < 0.05). It was found that out of the sampled dogs, a total of 35/127 (27.6%), 29/100 (29%), 73/130 (56.2%), and 46/93 (49.5%) dogs were tested seropositive for Leptospira antibodies in winter, spring, summer and fall, respectively (P < 0.05).

A New Beginning to the Existing Medicines; Repurposing FDA-Approved Drugs for the Neglected Re-Emerging Disease Leptospirosis.

Leptospirosis is one of the re-emerging zoonotic diseases, especially in tropical regions. Many antibiotics are used to treat leptospirosis, but there are no scientific evidence-based guidelines or systematic clinical trials for using these drugs. A bioinformatics approach was made to shortlist some Food and Drug Administration (FDA) of the United States of America-approved and currently used drugs for leptospirosis. The existing drugs from the Drug Bank database, which are currently not used for leptospirosis, were selected to identify their target proteins and binding sites using bioinformatics methods. Orthologues of these target proteins were selected from the proteome database of Leptospira. The similar sites and their interactions with the drugs were validated and recommended for use in leptospirosis. Further, the sensitivity of recommended drugs was also validated in vitro. The sequences and structures of these proteins were compared under strictly controlled parameters and shortlisted Gatifloxacin, Imipenem, Latamoxef, Doripenem, Tigecycline, and Lactams as repurposable drugs for leptospirosis. An in vitro validation of the drugs showed significant antileptospiral activity in 12 serovars with low IC50 concentrations and also showed that the IC50 values varied across Leptospira serovars. Further, suitable proteins under the concept of "One Target, Many Drugs" identified DNA gyrase subunit A (Q72WD1), 30S ribosomal protein S9 (Q72U99), and 30S ribosomal protein S12 (Q72UA6), and these proteins were found across the pathogenic, saprophytic, and intermediate species of Leptospira. We describe a method to find repurposable drugs from the approved list that are not currently used to treat leptospirosis and validate them to be taken forward for systematic clinical trials specific to leptospirosis for recommendations in clinical use.

Evolutionary insights into the emergence of virulent Leptospira spirochetes.

Pathogenic Leptospira are spirochete bacteria which cause leptospirosis, a re-emerging zoonotic disease of global importance. Here, we use a recently described lineage of environmental-adapted leptospires, which are evolutionarily the closest relatives of the highly virulent Leptospira species, to explore the key phenotypic traits and genetic determinants of Leptospira virulence. Through a comprehensive approach integrating phylogenomic comparisons with in vitro and in vivo phenotyping studies, we show that the evolution towards pathogenicity is associated with both a decrease of the ability to survive in the environment and the acquisition of strategies that enable successful host colonization. This includes the evasion of the mammalian complement system and the adaptations to avoid activation of the innate immune cells by the highly-virulent Leptospira species (also called P1+ species), unlike other species belonging to the phylogenetically related P1- and P2 groups, as well as saprophytes. Moreover, our analysis reveals specific genetic determinants that have undergone positive selection during the course of evolution in Leptospira, contributing directly to virulence and host adaptation as demonstrated by gain-of-function and knock-down studies. Taken together, our findings define a new vision on Leptospira pathogenicity, identifying virulence attributes associated with clinically relevant species, and provide insights into the evolution and emergence of these life-threatening pathogens.

Exploring immuno-genetic resistance in pigs to the food-borne zoonotic pathogen, Toxoplasma gondii: A serological study in Central Italy

Toxoplasmosis is a re-emerging food-borne zoonosis of warm-blooded animals caused by Toxoplasma gondii, an obligate intracellular parasite with a complex biological cycle. Until now, the genotypic approach for discovering putative resistance immuno-genetic markers has never been adopted for T. gondii infection. Thus, this study aimed, for the first time, to deepen these novel insights. In particular, pigs, reared in different farms in Central Italy, were phenotypically characterized by serological assays performed on diaphragm meat juice. Out of 179 tested animals, 98 resulted seropositive (54.74%), 57 seronegative (31.84%), and 24 doubtful (13.40%), underlining a possible re-emerging diffusion of this protozoan in the investigated areas. Contextually, an RT-PCR assay, followed by Sanger sequencing for IL-18, a pro-inflammatory cytokine with a key role upstream of the infection, was developed. At this stage, for this interleukin, significant polymorphic variations were not detected compared to the reference sequence, except in a seropositive animal. However, the starting outcomes of this novel and preliminary study will be investigated in depth with different approaches also on other target genes, with a crucial activity in the immunity pathway towards T. gondii, to unveil the possible presence of resistance genetic mechanisms and, finally, to make pork derived food safer.

Serological and molecular survey of Q fever in the dog population of the Campania region, southern Italy

Q fever is a re-emerging zoonosis whose epidemiological cycle in ruminants is well defined, while the role of other species (including pets) is still debated. In this study, the serological and molecular prevalence of Coxiella burnetii in a sample of dogs in the Campania region, southern Italy was evaluated. A seroprevalence of 5.97 % (16/268) was observed using a commercial multispecies ELISA, compared to only 2.7 % (5/197) at the molecular level. No risk factors correlated with higher levels of exposure except for the size of the animal (small dogs showed significantly higher seroprevalence). Positive samples were further evaluated for reactivity to phase I and II antigens using IFA and phase-specific ELISAs (for specific IgG detection). Two animals showed antibodies against both phases of infection, suggesting that Coxiella burnetii seroconversion in dogs follows similar dynamics to those observed in ruminants.One of the five samples that showed positive results in real-time PCR was confirmed at the PCR endpoint and showed similarity with other Coxiella spp. strains detected in tick and dog samples when sequenced.In this study, we demonstrated exposure to Coxiella burnetii for different categories of dogs in southern Italy, including pet dogs living indoors. Since reports of transmission of infection from pets to humans have been described in both rural and urban areas, careful surveillance of these species is also necessary. In the lack of additional information, comprehending the risk to humans requires monitoring of wild and domestic animal populations.

Evaluation of Reproductive Histology Response of Adult Fasciola hepatica in Goats Vaccinated with Cathepsin L Phage-Exposed Mimotopes.

Fasciolosis, a globally re-emerging zoonotic disease, is mostly caused by the parasitic infection with Fasciola hepatica, often known as the liver fluke. This disease has a considerable impact on livestock productivity. This study aimed to evaluate the fluke burdens and faecal egg counts in goats that were administered phage clones of cathepsin L mimotopes and then infected with F. hepatica metacercariae. Additionally, the impact of vaccination on the histology of the reproductive system, specifically related to egg generation in adult parasites, was examined. A total of twenty-four goats, which were raised in sheds, were divided into four groups consisting of six animals each. These groups were randomly assigned. The goats were then subjected to two rounds of vaccination. Each vaccination involved the administration of 1 × 1013 phage particles containing specific mimotopes for cathepsin L2 (group 1: PPIRNGK), cathepsin L1 (group 2: DPWWLKQ), and cathepsin L1 (group 3: SGTFLFS). The immunisations were carried out on weeks 0 and 4, and the Quil A adjuvant was used in combination with the mimotopes. The control group was administered phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) (group 4). At week 6, all groups were orally infected with 200 metacercariae of F. hepatica. At week 22 following the initial immunisation, the subjects were euthanised, and adult F. hepatica specimens were retrieved from the bile ducts and liver tissue, and subsequently quantified. The specimens underwent whole-mount histology for the examination of the reproductive system, including the testis, ovary, vitellaria, Mehlis' gland, and uterus. The mean fluke burdens following the challenge were seen to decrease by 50.4%, 62.2%, and 75.3% (p < 0.05) in goats that received vaccinations containing cathepsin L2 PPIRNGK, cathepsin L1 DPWWLKQ, and cathepsin L1 SGTFLFS, respectively. Animals that received vaccination exhibited a significant reduction in the production of parasite eggs. The levels of IgG1 and IgG2 isotypes in vaccinated goats were significantly higher than in the control group, indicating that protection is associated with the induction of a mixed Th1/Th2 immune response. The administration of cathepsin L to goats exhibits a modest level of efficacy in inducing histological impairment in the reproductive organs of liver flukes, resulting in a reduction in egg output.

Re-Emergence of Rift Valley Fever Virus Lineage H in Senegal in 2022: In Vitro Characterization and Impact on Its Global Emergence in West Africa.

Rift Valley fever (RVF) is a re-emerging vector-borne zoonosis with a high public health and veterinary impact. In West Africa, many lineages were previously detected, but since 2020, lineage H from South Africa has been the main cause of the outbreaks. In this study, clinical samples collected through national surveillance were screened for RVF virus (RVFV) acute infection by RT-PCR and IgM ELISA tests. Sequencing, genome mapping and in vitro phenotypic characterization in mammal cells were performed on RT-PCR positive samples in comparison with other epidemic lineages (G and C). Four RVFV human cases were detected in Senegal and the sequence analyses revealed that the strains belonged to lineage H. The in vitro kinetics and genome mapping showed different replication efficiency profiles for the tested RVFV lineages and non-conservative mutations, which were more common to lineage G or specific to lineage H. Our findings showed the re-emergence of lineage H in Senegal in 2022, its high viral replication efficiency in vitro and support the findings that genetic diversity affects viral replication. This study gives new insights into the biological properties of lineage H and calls for deeper studies to better assess its potential to cause a future threat in Senegal.

Development of immunochromatographic strip assay to detect recent infection of Japanese encephalitis virus in swine population

Japanese Encephalitis (JE) is a mosquito borne re-emerging viral zoonotic disease. Sero-conversion in swine occurs 2–3 weeks before human infection, thus swine act as a suitable sentinel for predicting JE outbreaks in humans. The present study was undertaken with the objective of developing immunochromatographic strip (ICS) assay to detect recent infection of Japanese Encephalitis virus (JEV) in swine population. The two formats of ICS assay were standardized. In the first format, gold nanoparticles (GNP) were conjugated with goat anti-pig IgM (50 μg/ml) followed by spotting of recombinant NS1 protein (1 mg/ml) of JEV on NCM as test line and protein G (1 mg/ml) as control line. In the format-II, GNP were conjugated with rNS1 protein (50 μg/ml) followed by spotting of Goat anti-pig IgM (1 mg/ml) as test line and IgG against rNS1 (1 mg/ml) as control line. To decrease the non- specific binding, blocking of serum and nitrocellulose membrane (NCM) was done using 5% SMP in PBS-T and 1% BSA, respectively. Best reaction conditions for the assay were observed when 10 μl of GNP conjugate and 50 μl of 1:10 SMP blocked sera was reacted on BSA blocked NCM followed by reaction time of 15 mins. Samples showing both test and control line were considered positive whereas samples showing only control line were considered negative. A total of 318 field swine sera samples were screened using indirect IgM ELISA and developed ICS assay. Relative diagnostic sensitivity and specificity of format-I was 81.25% and 93.0% whereas of format-II was 87.50% and 62.93%, respectively. Out of 318 samples tested, 32 were positive through IgM ELISA with sero-positivity of 10.06% while sero-positivity with format-I of ICS was 8.1%. Owing to optimal sensitivity and higher specificity of format-I, it was validated in three different labs and the kappa agreement ranged from 0.80 to 1, which signifies excellent repeatability of the developed assay to test field swine sera samples for detecting recent JEV infection.

HSP90 is part of a protein complex with the L polymerase of Rift Valley fever phlebovirus and prevents its degradation by the proteasome during the viral genome replication/transcription stage.

The mosquito-borne Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV) from the Phenuiviridae family is a single-stranded RNA virus that causes the re-emerging zoonotic disease Rift Valley fever (RVF). Classified as a Category A agent by the NIH, RVFV infection can cause debilitating disease or death in humans and lead to devastating economic impacts by causing abortion storms in pregnant cattle. In a previous study, we showed that the host chaperone protein HSP90 is an RVFV-associated host factor that plays a critical role post viral entry, during the active phase of viral genome replication/transcription. In this study, we have elucidated the molecular mechanisms behind the regulatory effect of HSP90 during infection with RVFV. Our results demonstrate that during the early infection phase, host HSP90 associates with the viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (L protein) and prevents its degradation through the proteasome, resulting in increased viral replication.

Infection and re-infection of Leptospira spp. in stray dogs and cats from Bogota, Colombia.

Leptospirosis is a re-emerging zoonosis that is under-reported in tropical countries, and canines can be a potential reservoir of the disease. The objective of this study was to diagnose Leptospira spp. that is actively infected and re-infected in stray dogs and cats from Bogota, D.C., Colombia. A sample of 200 animals, including dogs and cats from the animal protection programs of Bogota, Colombia, were used in this study. Blood was collected from these animals for serum and DNA analysis. Conventional polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was performed using the 16s rRNA primer set, and higher-quality amplification products were sequenced by Sanger. For serodiagnosis, a group of PCR-positive samples was tested using the microagglutination test (MAT). The overall PCR positivity of stray dogs and cats was 56%, 52.9%, and 65.3% in dogs and cats, respectively. The MAT seropositivity was 77.3%, and only dogs showed titers higher than 1:400. Canicola, Icterohaemorrhagiae, Pomona, Hardjo Prajitno, and Canicola and Hardjo prajitno were the serogroups associated with dogs and cats, respectively. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that the strains belonging to Leptospira interrogans serovars related to isolated samples of American, European, and Asian bats (Myotis myotis), dogs, and bovines of American origin. These results showed that stray dogs and cats were previously exposed to different serovars of Leptospira spp. and re-infected with other serovars that actively participated in the transmission cycle. These findings highlight the importance of actively diagnosing infectious animals to design effective intervention strategies.

Development and implementation of a strategy for early diagnosis and management of scrub typhus: an emerging public health threat.

Scrub typhus, caused by Orientia tsutsugamushi, is a re-emerging zoonotic disease in the tropics with considerable morbidity and mortality rates. This disease, which is mostly prevalent in rural areas, remains underdiagnosed and underreported because of the low index of suspicion and non-specific clinical presentation. Limited access to healthcare, diagnostics, and treatment in rural settings further makes it challenging to distinguish it from other febrile illnesses. While easily treatable, improper treatment leads to severe forms of the disease and even death. As there is no existing public health program to address scrub typhus in India, there is an urgent need to design a program and test its effectiveness for control and management of the disease. With this backdrop, this implementation research protocol has been developed for a trial in few of the endemic "pockets" of Odisha, an eastern Indian state that can be scalable to other endemic areas of the country, if found effective. The main goal of the proposed project is to include scrub typhus as a differential diagnosis of fever cases in every tier of the public health system, starting from the community level to the health system, for the early diagnosis among suspected cases and to ensure that individuals receive complete treatment. The current study aimed to describe the protocol of the proposed Scrub Typhus Control Program (STCP) in detail so that it can receive valuable views from peers which can further strengthen the attempt.

Acute Kidney Injury Associated with Severe Leptospirosis: Fatal Re-Emerging Disease in Latin America

Leptospirosis is a re-emerging zoonotic disease that has had an unprecedented impact on most health systems in the world. The spectrum of symptoms is variable and usually ranges from asymptomatic cases to severe manifestations involving multiple organ dysfunction accompanied by jaundice, hemorrhage, meningitis, and acute kidney injury that requires the need for intensive care assistance. Although early antibiotic treatment is usually effective, in severe cases, it may require renal replacement therapy, invasive mechanical ventilation, vasoactive support, and invasive hemodynamic monitoring, increasing the risk of death. In Latin America, the real burden of acute kidney injury in this condition is unknown and may be underestimated due to the rapid progression of the disease, similar to other vector zoonoses, and the low coverage of diagnostic tests in primary care, especially in rural regions. Therefore, below, we review the clinical aspects and describe the scientific, clinical, and therapeutic evidence of acute kidney injury attributed to Leptospira spp. and its relevance in patients with severe leptospirosis in Latin America.

Risk Factors for Leptospirosis in Rural Communities of Bungoma County, Kenya: A Cross Sectional Survey

Leptospirosis is an important re-emerging zoonosis of worldwide public health concern. Leptospirosis is caused by a bacteria of the genus Leptospira. There was an outbreak of leptospirosis in humans in Bungoma County in 2004 with severe consequences. Leptospirosis is enzootic in cattle in Bungoma County. This study was conducted to determine the risk factors for leptospirosis in humans in Bungoma County. The risk factors considered in this study were; rainfall patterns, livestock management practices (grazing and watering system), home slaughter of livestock, consumption of un-inspected meat, rodent infestation in homes, and frequency of contact of livestock keepers with veterinary extension staff. A cross-sectional survey was carried out in Kimilili and Mt Elgon sub-counties of Bungoma County, Kenya. The study was conducted between April and July of 2017. The locations were then sampled, and 400 households selected using a systematic random sampling technique. Questionnaires were administered to heads of the identified households. Descriptive statistics and the chi-square test were used to analyze the data. Secondary data from medical records in Kimilili and Webuye health facilities were taken to show the disease trends in the year 2004. The study reveals the risk factors for leptospirosis in Bungoma County which include the close association of the community and their livestock (87.9%, n=400), rodent infestation in homes (92.3%, n=400), slaughter of animals in non-designated areas (83.8%, n=400), consumption of un-inspected meat (83.0%, n=400) and low contact of the population with veterinary extension staff (63.7%, n=400). The risk factors under consideration in this study were observed in over 80% of the study population. The study recommends that knowledge of leptospirosis and its risk factors be enhanced for effective control and prevention program.

Exploring the complex interplay: gut microbiome, stress, and leptospirosis.

Leptospirosis, a re-emerging zoonotic disease, remains a significant global health concern, especially amid floods and disasters such as the Kakhovka Dam destruction. As is known, the stress that occurs in the conditions of military conflicts among civilian and military personnel significantly affects susceptibility to infectious diseases and possibly even influences their course. This review aims to explore how the gut microbiome and stress mediators (such as catecholamines and corticosteroids) might impact the leptospirosis disease course. The review opens new horizons for research by elucidating the connections between the gut microbiome, stress, and leptospirosis.

Seroprevalence of Leptospirosis in Cattle in Smallholder Livestock Production Systems in Bungoma County, Kenya

Leptospirosis is an important re-emerging bacterial zoonosis of public health importance in Kenya. It is transmitted through contact with contaminated soil, water, or urine of infected animals. The disease is associated with high economic losses which include high cost of diagnosis and treatment, disruption of international trade in animals and animal products and loss of milk production following mastitis among others. In this study, the sero-prevalence of bovine leptospirosis in Kimilili and Mt Elgon Sub-Counties of Bungoma County in Kenya was estimated. A cross-sectional study was conducted between April to July, 2017 where blood serum samples from 200 head of cattle from five wards and one slaughter house using systematic random sampling technique. The samples were then subjected to the Enzyme Linked Immunorsorbent Assay (ELISA) test. The findings show an overall sero-prevalence for leptospirosis in cattle in the study area to be 16%. The sero-prevalence of leptospirosis in the study area by wards is as follows; 10.7% in Kibingei, 12.5% in Kimilili, 17.6 in Maeni, 16.7% in Kamukuywa and 15.6% in Kaptama. The study also reveals that the sero-prevalence was relatively higher in Kimilili Slaughterhouse which recorded 21.0%. The study therefore demonstrates that there is a high sero-prevalence of leptospirosis in cattle in Kimilili and Mt Elgon Sub-Counties, Bungoma County. This study therefore provides critical public health information which is necessary in guiding leptospirosis prevention and control in Bungoma County. It is therefore recommended that strategies for surveillance and laboratory diagnosis of leptospirosis should be initiated in Bungoma County. This will help in providing better estimates of leptospirosis burden in the county.