Rayleigh Surface Acoustic Wave Research Articles

Multi-Parameter Characterization of Liquid-to-Ice Phase Transition Using Bulk Acoustic Waves.

The detection of the liquid-to-ice transition is an important challenge for many applications. In this paper, a method for multi-parameter characterization of the liquid-to-ice phase transition is proposed and tested. The method is based on the fundamental properties of bulk acoustic waves (BAWs). BAWs with shear vertical (SV) or shear horizontal (SH) polarization cannot propagate in liquids, only in solids such as ice. BAWs with longitudinal (L) polarization, however, can propagate in both liquids and solids, but with different velocities and attenuations. Velocities and attenuations for L-BAWs and SV-BAWs are measured in ice using parameters such as time delay and wave amplitude at a frequency range of 1-37 MHz. Based on these measurements, relevant parameters for Rayleigh surface acoustic waves and Poisson's modulus for ice are determined. The homogeneity of the ice sample is also detected along its length. A dual sensor has been developed and tested to analyze two-phase transitions in two liquids simultaneously. Distilled water and a 0.9% solution of NaCl in water were used as examples.

Anisotropic attenuation of GHz-frequency acoustic phonons and the Grüneisen tensor in MgO crystal

We report on measurements of the anisotropy of velocities and attenuation of GHz-frequency acoustic phonons in a cubic MgO crystal at room temperature. They are used to quantify the strong anisotropy of the Grüneisen parameter and calculate the attenuation anisotropy for Rayleigh surface acoustic waves. These observations constitute important building blocks for better understanding of ultrafast laser-based magneto-acoustic and nonlinear acoustic experiments at ultrahigh frequencies.

High speed surface acoustic wave and laterally excited bulk wave resonator based on single-crystal non-polar AlN film

One approach to extend the acoustic applications of aluminum nitride (AlN) in the GHz frequency range is to take advantage of the piezoelectric performance and high acoustic velocity (∼11 350 m/s) along the c-axis of this material. In particular, in the case of high-frequency micro-electromechanical systems, it should be possible to simplify the construction of resonators by using a-plane AlN-based structures. In the work described in this Letter, a single-crystalline a-plane AlN layer on an r-plane sapphire substrate is obtained by combining sputtering and high-temperature annealing. Based on this non-polar AlN, a resonator with only planar interdigital transducer electrodes is fabricated. Experiments on this resonator reveal simultaneous excitation of an anisotropic Rayleigh surface acoustic wave (SAW) at 2.38 GHz and a laterally excited bulk acoustic wave (LBAW) at 4.00 GHz. It is found that the Rayleigh SAW exhibits outstanding performance, with a quality factor as high as 2458 and great stability under variations in temperature. The LBAW at 4.00 GHz is excited by pure planar interdigitated electrodes without the need for any cavity or bottom electrode structure, thus demonstrating a promising approach to the construction of high-frequency resonators with a relatively simple structure.

Finite element simulation of Rayleigh surface acoustic wave in (100) AlN/(100) ZnO/diamond layered structure

Finite element simulation of Rayleigh surface acoustic wave in (100) AlN/(100) ZnO/diamond layered structure

Quantitative Ultrafast Magnetoacoustics at Magnetic Metasurfaces.

Femtosecond (fs) time-resolved magneto-optics is applied to investigate laser-excited ultrafast dynamics of one-dimensional nickel gratings on fused silica and silicon substrates for a wide range of periodicities Λ = 400-1500 nm. Multiple surface acoustic modes with frequencies up to a few tens of GHz are generated. Nanoscale acoustic wavelengths Λ/n have been identified as nth-spatial harmonics of Rayleigh surface acoustic wave (SAW) and surface skimming longitudinal wave (SSLW), with acoustic frequencies and lifetimes being in agreement with theoretical calculations. Resonant magnetoelastic excitation of the ferromagnetic resonance (FMR) by SAW's third spatial harmonic, and, most interestingly fingerprints of the parametric resonance at 1/2 SAW frequency have been observed. Numerical solutions of Landau-Lifshitz-Gilbert (LLG) equation magnetoelastically driven by complex polychromatic acoustic fields quantitatively reproduce all resonances at once. Thus, our results provide a solid experimental and theoretical base for a quantitative understanding of ultrafast fs-laser-driven magnetoacoustics and tailoring the magnetic-grating-based metasurfaces at the nanoscale.

Optical and acoustic phonons in turbostratic and cubic boron nitride thin films on diamond substrates

We report an investigation of the bulk optical, bulk acoustic, and surface acoustic phonons in thin films of turbostratic boron nitride (t-BN) and cubic boron nitride (c-BN) grown on B-doped polycrystalline and single-crystalline diamond (001) and (111) substrates. The characteristics of different types of phonons were studied using Raman and Brillouin-Mandelstam light scattering spectroscopies. The atomic structure of the films was determined using high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM) and correlated with the Raman and Brillouin-Mandelstam spectroscopy data. The HRTEM analysis revealed that the cubic boron nitride thin films consisted of a mixture of c-BN and t-BN phases, with c-BN being the dominant phase. It was found that while visible Raman spectroscopy provided information for characterizing the t-BN phase, it faced challenges in differentiating the c-BN phase either due to the presence of high-density defects or the overlapping of the Raman features with those from the B-doped diamond substrates. In contrast, Brillouin-Mandelstam spectroscopy clearly distinguishes the bulk longitudinal and surface acoustic phonons of the c-BN thin films grown on diamond substrates. Additionally, the angle-dependent surface Brillouin-Mandelstam scattering data show the peaks associated with the Rayleigh surface acoustic waves, which have higher phase velocities in c-BN films on diamond (111) substrates. These findings provide valuable insights into the phonon characteristics of the c-BN and diamond interfaces and have important implications for the thermal management of electronic devices based on ultra-wide-band-gap materials.

Study of Rayleigh waves interaction with a spherical ball in contact with a plane surface for the development of new NDT method for ball bearings

The monitoring of the integrity of the spherical balls inside a ball bearing can be challenging, as it needs to be disassembled in order to access every element of the structure. In this paper, an ultrasonic method is used to directly interrogate the spherical solids. The interaction wave-solid lets us extract material related information. The complex geometry of the ball bearing is simplified to a repetitive assembly of an elementary unit of a solid sphere setting on a plane surface. Understanding of the interaction between the ultrasonic wave and this elementary block is the key to a more general comprehension of the interaction with the complete ball bearing. To achieve this, the interaction between a Rayleigh Surface Acoustic Waves (SAWs) propagating on a plane and a spherical solid ball setting on that plane is studied, numerically and experimentally.In the experimental configuration, a steel ball is fixed to an aluminum block. Shear wave contact transducers are used to generate SAWs, while a laser vibrometer is employed to precisely measure the ensuing displacements. Subsequently, the collected time series data is carefully visualized and analyzed to discern distinct waves, such as the Rayleigh wave on the block, SAW on the sphere, and the waves generated by the sphere. To complement these experimental findings, a numerical model is created using finite element analysis, faithfully reproducing the experimental conditions. This approach facilitates a comprehensive examination of the displacement field, both on the surface of the sphere and the aluminum block.The extraction of the material related information of the spherical ball is based on the estimation of the resonance frequency of each vibrational mode of the solid sphere. Furthermore, 3D Gabor and dispersion curves from the spatio-temporal signals are used to estimate and analyze these frequencies and to compare the different waves involved in the interaction: the direct Rayleigh waves, the back-generated waves and the waves propagating on the surface of the sphere. The findings demonstrate that the transmitted waves toward the block (back-generated wave) preserve the waveform of the SAW propagating on the sphere, enabling the deduction of the dispersive behavior and extraction of material properties, such as the Rayleigh wave group velocity.The implications of this study are particularly relevant for non-destructive testing and evaluation (NDTE) of ball bearings, as the research provides insights into characterizing their integrity without disassembling them. The ability to extract material information from signals measured at the outer ring of ball bearings holds promise for practical applications in assessing their condition.

Phononic crystals for Love waves based on thin-film lithium niobate

This paper presents a type of surface acoustic wave (SAW) phononic crystals based on thin-film lithium niobate (LN). They are created by forming micro-pillar or micro-well structures on the LN, resulting in significant Rayleigh and Love SAW bandgaps. Especially for Love waves, they offer an irreplaceable advantage because they overcome the inability of conventional electrodes to reflect Love waves effectively. This enables the creation of high-quality, compact, high electromechanical coupling coefficient, stable and power-resistant acoustic resonators based on Love waves, potentially leading to a new generation of high-performance SAW filters and sensors. In this paper, we demonstrate the feasibility of such phononic crystals using xy-cut LN-on-SiC. However, it is worth noting that other piezoelectric materials such as lithium tantalate can also be used instead of LN, and high acoustic velocity substrates such as sapphire and diamond can be substituted for SiC.

Asynchronous STW resonators with the high quality factor and reduced sizes

Surface transverse waves (STW) on quartz have the high propagation velocity, which is higher by 60% than velocity of the Rayleigh surface acoustic waves (SAW), high temperature stability comparable with temperature stability of SAW on quartz. Those advantages allow successfully use STW in the high frequency resonators. However, a large number of the electrodes 400 in the reflectors is required to ensure the high quality factor of the resonators. This leads to increase the resonators sizes, especially on the frequencies < 1000 MHz. The 500-1000 MHz STW resonators with high quality factor on 36°YX90° cut quartz and reduced size were presented. Use of the asynchronous topology, constructional, topological and technological optimization with a computer simulation on the base of a equivalent circuit model allowed obtain in the frequency range of 500-1000 MHz the high quality factor of 8600-9500, reduced sizes of the topology in comparison with the known prototypes and place the resonators in the 3×3×1.2 mm and 5×5×1.8 mm SMD packages. The developed STW resonators with high quality factor and reduced sizes will be widely used in the miniature low noise oscillators.

Phonon–magnon conversion using longitudinal leaky surface acoustic waves through magnetoelastic coupling

Surface acoustic waves (SAWs) can transmit magnetization oscillation inside magnetoelastic films in the form of magnetoacoustic waves. If the frequency and wavenumber of SAWs match those of spin waves, magnon excitation can be observed. In this work, we studied the phonon–magnon conversion excited by longitudinal leaky SAWs, which possess the same dominant strain component like Rayleigh-type SAWs but a much higher phase velocity. The measured transmission power absorptions of both SAW modes due to spin wave resonance follow a linear frequency dependence and exhibit a fourfold symmetry. We demonstrate that longitudinal leaky SAWs can serve as a very effective means to excite stronger phonon–magnon coupling than Rayleigh SAWs at a lower wave number.

Theoretical investigation of Rayleigh surface acoustic wave propagation characteristics in c-axis-zigzag ScAlN film/silicon substrate structure

Surface acoustic wave (SAW) resonators are key components of mobile communication systems, and the development of wideband SAW resonators is especially required because next-generation mobile communication systems require high-speed data transmission using wide frequency bands. In this study, two layered structures—(i) a c-axis-tilted ScAlN bilayer film/silicon substrate and (ii) a c-axis-zigzag ScAlN film/silicon substrate—are proposed for highly coupled SAW resonators, and the electromechanical coupling coefficient K2 of the non-leaky Rayleigh-mode SAW propagating in these structures is investigated theoretically. With a proper c-axis tilt angle and thickness selection of the ScAlN film, the first-mode Rayleigh SAW in the c-axis-tilted ScAlN bilayer film/silicon substrate and c-axis-zigzag ScAlN film/silicon substrate offers high K2. The maximum K2 was 9.56%, obtained in the c-axis-zigzag ScAlN film/silicon substrate structure, which was 2.5 times the maximum K2 in the c-axis-tilted ScAlN monolayer film/silicon substrate structure; this is because the c-axis-zigzag ScAlN films increase the shear vertical component of the SAW particle displacement, most of which is concentrated in the c-axis-zigzag ScAlN film on the silicon substrate. It is also important that the second-mode SAW (Sezawa wave) in the c-axis-zigzag ScAlN film/silicon substrate structure is not excited when the K2 value of the first-mode SAW is maximized. The techniques for fabricating a c-axis-tilted ScAlN film and a c-axis-zigzag ScAlN film have been reported, and well-established micromachining technology related to silicon semiconductors offers significant advantages in the manufacturing and processing of SAW resonators. Therefore, the c-axis-zigzag ScAlN film/silicon substrate structure has significant potential for SAW device applications.

Modulating the Performance of the SAW Strain Sensor Based on Dual-Port Resonator Using FEM Simulation.

Surface acoustic wave (SAW) strain sensors fabricated on piezoelectric substrates have attracted considerable attention due to their attractive features such as passive wireless sensing ability, simple signal processing, high sensitivity, compact size and robustness. To meet the needs of various functioning situations, it is desirable to identify the factors that affect the performance of the SAW devices. In this work, we perform a simulation study on Rayleigh surface acoustic wave (RSAW) based on a stacked Al/LiNbO3 system. A SAW strain sensor with a dual-port resonator was modeled using multiphysics finite element model (FEM) method. While FEM has been widely used for numerical calculations of SAW devices, most of the simulation works mainly focus on SAW modes, SAW propagation characteristics and electromechanical coupling coefficients. Herein, we propose a systematic scheme via analyzing the structural parameters of SAW resonators. Evolution of RSAW eigenfrequency, insertion loss (IL), quality factor (Q) and strain transfer rate with different structural parameters are elaborated by FEM simulations. Compared with the reported experimental results, the relative errors of RSAW eigenfrequency and IL are about 3% and 16.3%, respectively, and the absolute errors are 5.8 MHz and 1.63 dB (the corresponding Vout/Vin is only 6.6%). After structural optimization, the obtained resonator Q increases by 15%, IL decreases by 34.6% and the strain transfer rate increases by 2.4%. This work provides a systematic and reliable solution for the structural optimization of dual-port SAW resonators.

Giant spin-vorticity coupling excited by shear-horizontal surface acoustic waves

A non-magnetic layer can inject spin-polarized currents into an adjacent ferromagnetic layer via spin vorticity coupling (SVC), inducing spin wave resonance (SWR). In this work, we present the theoretical model of SWR generated by shear-horizontal surface acoustic wave (SH-SAW) via SVC, which contains distinct vorticities from well-studied Rayleigh SAW. Both Rayleigh- and SH-SAW delay lines have been designed and fabricated with a Ni81Fe19/Cu bilayer integrated on ST-cut quartz. Given the same wavelength, the measured power absorption of SH-SAW is four orders of magnitudes higher than that of the Rayleigh SAW. In addition, a high-order frequency dependence of the SWR is observed in the SH-SAW, indicating SVC can be strong enough to compare with magnetoelastic coupling.

Acoustoelectric Effect of Rayleigh and Sezawa Waves in ZnO/Fused Silica Produced by an Inhomogeneous In-Depth Electrical Conductivity Profile

The acousto-electric (AE) effect associated with the propagation of Rayleigh and Sezawa surface acoustic waves (SAWs) in ZnO/fused silica was theoretically investigated under the hypothesis that the electrical conductivity of the piezoelectric layer has an exponentially decaying profile akin to the photoconductivity effect induced by ultra-violet illumination in wide-band-gap photoconducting ZnO. The calculated waves' velocity and attenuation shift vs. ZnO conductivity curves have the form of a double-relaxation response, as opposed to a single-relaxation response which characterizes the AE effect due to surface conductivity changes. Two configurations were studied which reproduced the effect of UV light illumination from the top or from the bottom side of the ZnO/fused silica substrate: 1. the ZnO conductivity inhomogeneity starts from the free surface of the layer and decreases exponentially in depth; 2. the conductivity inhomogeneity starts from the lower surface of the ZnO layer contacting the fused silica substrate. To the author's knowledge, this is the first time the double-relaxation AE effect has been theoretically studied in bi-layered structures.

All-optical, non-contact, local measurement of both Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio in metals using a combination of Rayleigh and leaky surface acoustic waves

In non-destructive evaluation (NDE), measuring ultrasound (US) longitudinal and shear wave speeds is the main method to determine two independent mechanical moduli (Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio). Most US techniques use time-of-flight measurements. However, when the local sample thickness is unknown or the sample geometry is complex, bulk-wave propagation speeds cannot be accurately defined. Here we show that a properly shaped beam of nanosecond laser pulses can be used to efficiently excite (without material ablation) two types of surface acoustic waves. In addition to a conventional surface, or Rayleigh, wave, a leaky surface wave (LSAW) can be launched in the near field of the excitation region. We present the theoretical background, numerical simulations, and experimental results clearly showing that both elastic constants can be reconstructed locally by tracking Rayleigh and LSAW waves. Spatially resolved elastic properties can be obtained using local values of wave speeds obtained by sample scanning. Non-contact optical detection of propagating waves at the sample surface, in which a fiber-optic Sagnac interferometer was used, is a key piece of the method. It does not require acoustic coupling and allows remote measurements in the near field of the laser source with micron-scale resolution.

Rayleigh waves in an electroelastic medium with prestressed inhomogeneous coating

An approach to studying the influence of initial mechanical stresses and an electrostatic field on the structure and behavior of Rayleigh waves in piezoelectric media with non-homogeneous coatings is proposed. The paper considers two-component coatings made of functionally graded piezoelectric material with high-speed or low-speed inclusions. The initially deformed state of the coating is induced by the separate or combined action of initial mechanical stresses and an external electrostatic field. The influence of the type of non-homogeneity and the nature of initial mechanical stresses in the presence or absence of an initial electrostatic field on the features of Rayleigh wave propagation for problems with an electrically open or shorted surface is studied. It is established that the presence of a low-intensity initial electrostatic field only slightly affects the action of initial mechanical stresses depending on its direction. The presence of a high-intensity electrostatic field leads to additional deformation of the material, significant changes in the speeds of PAV modes, and substantial changes in the structure of the surface wave field. The obtained results are presented in dimensionless parameters and may be of practical interest in the development, design, and optimization of new materials for micro- and nanoscale devices and devices on Rayleigh surface acoustic waves with high performance characteristics.

Extraction of Attenuation Parameter in Periodic Shorted Reflectors of One-Port SAW Resonator Using Scattering Matrix Approach

In this work, the well-known scattering matrix approach to the design of one-port surface acoustic wave (SAW) resonators is adapted toward extraction of the coupling-of-modes (COM) attenuation parameter, <inline-formula xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"> <tex-math notation="LaTeX">$\alpha $ </tex-math></inline-formula> for Rayleigh SAW propagation on a periodic shorted aluminum grating. The attenuation close to resonance inside the reflectors of the one-port SAW resonator is extracted by matching the measured conductance of the resonator to its version calculated from the experimentally measured interdigital transducer (IDT) scattering coefficients, intrinsic substrate parameters, and geometry of the resonator. Based on the extracted value of <inline-formula xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"> <tex-math notation="LaTeX">$\alpha $ </tex-math></inline-formula> , it was observed that the proposed method could predict the unloaded <inline-formula xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"> <tex-math notation="LaTeX">$Q$ </tex-math></inline-formula> -factor of the resonator at a minor discrepancy of ~7.02%. At the same time, since the proposed method utilizes the measured IDT scattering coefficients to consider the effect of IDT losses on the measured conductance of the resonator, it offers a convenient scheme to directly extract the attenuation of SAW contributed by the reflectors of the device through numerical means while operating purely in the frequency domain. The proposed method could be applied to quantify the increase in attenuation caused by viscous damping of SAW inside sensing film-coated reflectors of one-port SAW resonator sensors, and thereby, aid to optimize the sensing film thickness to deploy these devices for high-resolution frequency-based sensing applications.

Simultaneous determination of Young's modulus and Poisson's ratio in metals from a single surface using laser-generated Rayleigh and leaky surface acoustic waves

Material elastic moduli are used to assess stiffness, elastic response, strength, and residual life. Ultrasound (US) measurements of propagation wave speeds (for longitudinal and shear waves) are now primary tools for non-destructive evaluation (NDE) of elastic moduli. Most US techniques measure the time-of-flight of through-transmission signals or reflected signals from the back wall. In both cases, an independently determined sample thickness is required. However, US methods are difficult for complex (non-flat) samples. When the local thickness is unknown, the propagation speed cannot be determined. On the other hand, the propagation speed of Rayleigh waves can be calculated without knowledge of sample thickness, but another independent measurement is still required to compute both Young's modulus and Poisson's ratio. We present a comprehensive theoretical background, numerical simulations, and experimental results that clearly show that when the material density is assumed known, both elastic constants of an isotropic metal sample can be determined with laser-ultrasound by tracking two types of surface propagating waves without any sample contact (both signal excitation and detection are performed optically). In addition to a conventional surface, or Rayleigh, acoustic wave, a leaky surface wave can also be launched with nanosecond laser pulses in the thermoelastic regime of excitation (i.e., without material ablation) close to the source that propagates along the sample surface with speed close to that of bulk longitudinal waves. Samples can be of arbitrary shape and their thickness need not be measured.

Acoustic charge transport in organic semiconductor films

We demonstrate the acoustic charge transport of optically induced excitons in two organic semiconductors, P3HT and MEH-PPV, up to a distance of 3 mm. The device consists of a surface acoustic wave (SAW) resonator transmitting SAW through a polymer layer where acoustic charge transport takes place and a polymer diode at the end to collect the charges. The voltage excitation is provided using an interdigital transducer (IDT) on a piezoelectric YZ lithium niobate substrate producing Rayleigh SAW at 42 MHz. Optical illumination up to 15 mW cm−2 intensity is applied to induce excitons in the polymer layer deposited on the lithium niobate substrate. The photogenerated excitons in the polymer are ionized by SAW field resulting in free carriers that are transported to the polymer diode by the travelling SAW. A surge in photovoltaic current in the diode is observed in the presence of SAW when the carriers are optically generated away from the diode. The maximum charge capacity and transfer efficiency of the acoustic transport are calculated for various SAW power and illumination intensities. A theoretical analysis of charge carrier dynamics in the presence of a moving SAW field is also performed using a semi-classical Hamiltonian of the system.

Combining plasmon-enhanced fluorescence with Rayleigh surface acoustic waves to quantify Carcinoembryonic Antigen from human plasma

To improve the direct quantification of Carcinoembryonic Antigen (CEA) from body fluids by immunofluorescence, a surface acoustic wave (SAW) based biosensor was developed combined with an optimized silver nanostructure at the sensing region. Fluorescence signal amplification is achieved by patterning silver nanostructures using the rapid thermal annealing (RTA) method. In addition, the problem of background noise interference from nonspecific binding in human plasma is addressed by Rayleigh wave streaming at the immunoassay region, which shows a reduction in the limit of detection. The results show that the silver nanostructures significantly increase the sensor sensitivity by 49.99-fold and lower the limit of detection of CEA in phosphate buffered saline (PBS) solution to 101.94 pg/mL. The limit of detection of CEA biomarker in human plasma was successfully brought down to 11.81 ng/mL by reducing background noise using Rayleigh SAW streaming. This allows for a point-of-need sensor system to be realized in various clinical biosensing applications.