Rational Considerations Research Articles

Prejudices in Pharmacology and Pharmacotherapy: Reserpine as a Model for Experimental Research in Depression

The choice of reserpine as practically the sole model substance used in research in depression over two decades was not dictated by rational considerations alone: hypothetical notions, prospects of the rapid realization of experimental research aims and the fascination of the exotic origin of this "natural" drug made a significant contribution.

Towards a More Rational Consideration of Census Areal Units: Daily Urban Systems in Britain

The utility of data based on areal units, such as British censuses, depends at least as much on the definition of these areal units as on the variables measured. The discontinuation of the local-authority areas used for all previous censuses allows a radical evaluation of the alternative areas for census-data presentation. A conceptual basis is discussed which contrasts simple areal aggregates with genuine ‘objects of interest’. It is suggested that the daily urban system is the candidate which best meets these criteria for a meaningful areal unit for census-data presentation.

The AISC Quality Certification Program

In recent years, the quality of construction methods and materials has become the subject of increasing concern to building officials, highway officials, and designers. One result of this concern has been the enactment of ever more demanding inspection requirements intended to ensure product quality. In many cases, however, these more demanding inspection requirements have not been based upon demonstrated unsatisfactory performance of structures in service. Rather, they have been based upon the capacity of sophisticated test equipment, or upon standards developed for nuclear construction rather than conventional construction. Adding to the problem, arbitrary interpretation of specifications by inspectors has too often been made without rational consideration of the type of construction involved. The result has been spiraling increases in the costs of fabrication of structural steel and of inspection, which must be paid by owners without necessarily assuring that the product quality required has been improved. Product inspection, although it has a valid place in the construction process, is not the most logical or practical way to assure that structural steelwork will conform to the requirements of contract documents and satisfy the intended use. A better solution can be found in the exercise of good quality control and quality assurance by the fabricator throughout the entire production process.

Seismic Response of Uplifting Building Frame

Results are compared to the experimental response of a 9-story steel frame model tested on the Univ. of Calif., Berkeley, Calif., shaking table. The uplifting response is compared to the response for the same excitation with overturning ancharage provided, demonstrating a considerable reduction in the applied loading for the uplifting case. Extrapolation of the test results to a theoretical prototype frame indicate that a significant uplifting response would occur during a moderate, credible earthquake, even though not indicated by even conservative current building code seismic provisions. A rational consideration of the uplifting behavior is shown to be compatible with the concept of dual seismic loading criteria; a service loading that should produce no damage, and a maximum credible loading that should not result in catastrophic failure. A design including a rationally planned uplifting capability should stand a much beetter chancee of surviving a maximum credible earthquake in a functional condition.

Educational Research: Which Way?

I have looked forward to this occasion with some trepidation, and indeed am rather surprised to find myself in this position. This is the fourth annual conference of BERA, so three presidential addresses have so far been delivered. Two were by presidents who happened (by some chance) also to be the current chairman of the SSRC's Education Research Board men familiar with the corridors of power, and adept at wearing different hats (as the saying goes). The third was Ed Stones who I think of, in relation to BERA, as our founder and progenitor. By comparison, I am a mere maverick and, if I have more than one hat, they are rather different ones. Those -who were at last year's presidential address will know that I never succeeded in gaining my M.Ed. at what was, in the later 1940s, the power house of psychometry, Manchester University's Department of Education; even though I apparently sat on the same benches as last year's president who gained a distinction. One might have thought there would be some kind of ripple effect. But I fled to Leicester, a Department of Education applied to on two negative critiera; first, that it was not involved in psychometric studies in any way whatsoever; second, that the professor was not a member of a group known to initiates then as 'Moberley's underground' (a move to Christianise, rather than measure, education which also by-passed the key issues). As a matter of fact Leicester was about the only department left after applying these criteria. But there was also a positive pull that it appeared to be primarily interested in education per se. Here, against the background of active educational work, I turned to historical studies as the context necessary to an understanding of the social function of education and the nature of educational change. But, as it turned out, both educational and historical concerns contributed to focussing attention on a particular area of applied psychology which I began to tangle with both intellectually and practically when teaching in schools in the Manchester area on both sides of the selective division; those interests account for the publication in 1953 of what was no doubt a jejune critique of mental testing. Because this seemed to have become pivotal to the whole school system, indeed to educational thinking at the time to such an extent as to exclude other forms of diagnosis or analysis. No one offered me an M.Ed. for this illicit product of my Manchester studies. Indeed the then consultant to the NFER, A.F. Watts, described the book as 'too silly to merit rational consideration, except perhaps in the pages of a journal devoted to psychotherapy'. But most other reviewers thought the case deserved a serious answer criticism had been forthcoming from specialist circles and responsible educational psychologists were worried about the misuse of testing. Hence a working party specially set up to review the matter by the British Psychological Society, mainly, I think, at the instigation of Professor Philip Vernon. The outcome, in 1957, was the symposium, Secondary School Selection, an uneven and sometimes contradictory compilation but in some aspects of seminal importance historically in contributing to the breakdown of streaming, early selection and the tripartite system of secondary schools. For those interested in Gestalt psychology it may be worth recording that my moment of insight came when Professor Warburton characteristically in shirt and braces turned to the blackboard, in that rather dreary building

Regulatory policy and abortion clinics: implications for planning.

The practicalities of formulating regulatory policy associated with elective abortion often place public health officials at the center of political controversy. Resulting conflicts can inhibit a rational consideration of long-term objectives in implementing a national policy which assures legal accessibility to all who would select abortion as an alternative to term birth. Regulation which uses primarily structural criteria for monitoring and evaluating services tends to de-emphasize the importanc of contraceptive counseling as a component of abortion services. Our process/outcome evaluation of abortion clinics located in Chicago suggests that contraceptive counseling provided at the time of the abortion procedure has a potential long-term impact in terms of reducing the need for elective abortion. We suggest that regulation policy should include process and outcome criteria which support the eventual reduction in need for abortion as a long-range policy goal and suggest key issues for consideration when such a policy is formulated.

Dissolving the Moral Contract

What response is to be given to the immoralist's question ‘Why should I be just?’? I say ‘response’ because it is not clear that the immoralist is looking for an answer. His question seems to be rhetorical, even contemptuous. It nevertheless presents a challenge to morality. The immoralist's position is that it is irrational to take justice and fairness seriously and that his own advantage or self-interest (perhaps in a very wide sense) is the only rational consideration for him. This is not a moral position although it is a normative position; the immoralist has an alternative to the moral life but not an alternative morality. (Compare how some lifestyles are appropriately presented as alternatives to religion but not as alternative religions.) The immoralist is not a moralist with idiosyncratic views on what is just and fair—what he might call ‘true’ justice or ‘natural’ justice. On the contrary, where some co-operative mutually beneficial project is involved he presumably recognizes what is fair (or at least what is patently unfair) much as we all do. What he does not recognize is the rationality of being fair. Nor is this because he thinks there is some other consideration (moral or otherwise) which overrides justice in this particular case. He does not deal with our complaint ‘But that isn't fair!’ by presenting other, allegedly overriding, considerations. Rather, such a complaint is not granted an initial relevance. ‘Why should I be just?’ he says.

Creep Buckling of Imperfect Columns

Problems in creep buckling of columns have generally been analyzed based on the assumption of small deflection. However, it is known that the critical time for creep buckling is determined by unbounded deflection or deflection rate. Thus a more rational consideration of creep buckling problems would necessarily include large deformation. In this paper, a study of the creep buckling of two simple columns with geometrical imperfections associated with finite deformations has been made. The material property of the column is considered to satisfy a power law for creep deformation and a generalized Ramberg-Osgood relation for noncreep deformation. It is found that creep buckling at a finite time would exist only when the magnitude of the load is between two bounds. If the load is greater than the upper bound, instantaneous buckling would occur. On the other hand, if the load is smaller than the lower bound, creep buckling would not occur at any finite time. Misleading conclusions on creep buckling caused by the small deflection assumption are also investigated.

Ergonomics in control

Discussions of completely automatic plants, pilotless aircraft and other fantasies of the automation euphoria have now become outmoded and replaced by more rational considerations concerning the proper integration of men into complex systems. Ergonomics is the technology concerned with the application of the human sciences to problems of the effective deployment of manpower.This review attempts to outline the history and scope of ergonomics, and to indicate the types of problems which arise and the general way in which solutions are approached. A brief account is provided of the nature of human abilities, and the ways in which such knowledge should be applied to the design of equipment and systems. The object throughout is to provide a frame of reference, indicating the types of questions which require to be asked and answered. No attempt is made to provide a compendium of detailed facts and figures for designers to use.

The Right to Educate

Many observers and critics of current public school practices have advocated that parents be given more control over their children's education. On the other hand, the suggestion has sometimes been voiced that children-particularly those from disadvantaged families-be removed from their own parents and reared in public nurseries. Admittedly the latter suggestion is distasteful, even shocking, to most of us; yet it is doubtful whether our emotional revulsion to this suggestion is accompanied by any rational considerations. So great is our commitment to the nuclear family, that the idea of removing children from their natural parents seems utterly alien to everything we believe and hold dear. But, as with other deep, personal commitments, once we begin to search for solid, rational grounds upon which such a commitment might be defended, if not based, we find ourselves floundering in deep and troubled waters.' It is unlikely that our society would ever seriously consider forc

Life Insurance Company Expense Limitation Laws, 1905-1907

The Armstrong Investigation in late 1905 was a landmark in examining the life insurance industry and exposing its faults, and the enacted by the New York legislature the following year have had a significant impact on the industry ever since. This paper reexamines the segment of the Armstrong legislation which has had a strong, though indirect, impact on life insurance rates, namely, the limitations imposed on company expenses. The effects of these depended on the dominance of the New York-licensed companies, since most other states failed to adopt limitation laws. This paper examines, on a state-by-state basis, why this form of life insurance rate regulation was adopted only by New York and Wisconsin. It discovers that geographical prejudices, local economics, and occasionally political pressures intervened to preclude rational consideration of the merits of such legislation. It concludes that these have never been seriously discussed and evaluated by the legislatures of most states. Property and liability insurance regulation is now under feverish but meticulous reconsideration and revision. Old and procedures are being discarded, in many cases, without the benefit of knowing either the original purposes for which the and procedures were designed or the political or technical considerations which led to rejection of alternatives. One of the areas most resistant to reconsideration is that of rate regulation. A strong case is currently being made in favor of abolishing the of prior approval of property and liability insurance rates. Where this case is not accepted, at least those opposed faN7or explicit, direct regulation of rates. In life insurance, on the other hand, a of rate rcgulation which is indirect Steven N. Weisbart, M.A., is a Huebner Fellow at the University of Pennsylvania and is cuirently working on his doctoral dissertation. The author expresses his appreciation to Dr. Dan NI. McGill and Dr. Herbert S. Denenberg for their help and encouragement in the preparation and submission of this article. Of course, he assumes full responsibility for the completed paper. This paper was submitted in June, 1969. and unrelated to many objectives of rate regulation prevails. This originated sixty-five years ago in New York State and, although on the statute books of only three states, affects virtually all life insurance in force in this country through the Appleton Rule. The system referred to is the limitation of expenses of life insurers. With basic regulatory reconsideration under way, this is an appropriate time to reconsider the purposes and the means of enforcement of the limitation laws.' The object of this paper is to provide historical insight into the origins of the upon which to base that reconsideration. 'The term expense limitation laws is used to mean a law or the purpose of which is to restrict the amount of money a life insurance company may expend for the acquisition of new business, frequently including a direct limitation on the first-year commission rate. However, it should be recognized that many states, including New York, have other which directly limit expenses of various kinds-some of which will be discussed below-and still other which might be called expense publication laws which act as indirect limitations by requiring disclosure.

Predisposing factors in sudden cardiac death in Tecumseh, Michigan. A prospective study.

In an epidemiologic study of the total population of Tecumseh, Michigan, 98 deaths from coronary heart disease were observed between 1959 and 1965. Forty-five of the fatalities occurred within 1 hour of the onset of symptoms and were classified as sudden. The proportion of sudden deaths among men was nearly twice that among women, and the incidence increased progressively with age in both sexes. Hypertensive heart disease, coronary heart disease, or diabetes mellitus had been detected on prior examination in 62% of those who died suddenly. Physiologic abnormalities associated with a high risk of coronary heart disease were also found more frequently than in the total Tecumseh population. All but seven of the persons who died suddenly had abnormalities including arrhythmias and conduction defects which were detected in the standard 12-lead electrocardiogram. Although sudden deaths often seem to occur without warning, the victims are predisposed by conditions which are detectable long before the catastrophic event. The identification of conditions which are precursors of sudden death from coronary heart disease permits a rational consideration of possible preventive measures.

Stagnation as a Basis of Regionalism: A Lesson from Indonesia

Regionalism can be defined simply as a strong sentiment of loyalty or attachment among the population of a geographical segment of a state to that particular territory. As such, regionalism inhibits national integration by hindering the emergence of widespread popular identity with the nation. What makes regionalism particularly significant is that, unlike other horizontal divisions, it is the only source of fragmentation which by itself can threaten the physical integrity of the state. The prevalence of regionalism in an acute form is without doubt one of the most serious and immediate problems facing many of the new states of Asia and Africa. Nevertheless, the hypotheses offered to explain the intensity of regionalist sentiment are still inadequate. The most widespread of the explanations is expressed in terms of what Geertz has called primordial attachment.' Along with kinship, race, religion, language and custom, region is also regarded as an independent focus of loyalty and identity. More often, regionalism is seen simply as the expression of sentiments based on one or more of the other primordial ties. Presumably, a region which is dissimilar from much of the rest of the country in terms of one characteristic is likely to be more regionalist than a region without such distinctiveness. Presumably, regionalism is even stronger where there are several peculiarities focused or overlapping in a particular region. Closely related to and often combined with this explanation is the hypothesis that strong regional loyalty reflects distinctive historical experience, derived perhaps from the memory of past glories or conflicts. A history of intermittent or prolonged conflict with and resistance against other regions has also been cited as the basis of intense regionalist sentiment, particularly when at least one of the other regions has become closely identified with the central government. Another common explanation takes regionalism to be the expression of rational economic or power considerations. Assertions of strong regionalist loyalty are often thus attributed to dissatisfaction with the region's prevailing or impending share of either material goods or political power. Each of these explanations suffers from obvious difficulties, but only the

Oxygen consumption of the heart: Newer concepts of its multifactoral determination

The development of tension and the contractile state of the myocardium are the primary determinants of myocardial oxygen consumption. Recognition of these two factors and their interrelation has served to explain a number of apparent discrepancies in the literature. Other factors, including basal myocardial oxygen consumption, activation energy and external work, also contribute to the myocardial oxygen consumption, but to a relatively minor extent. An understanding of these general principles should permit a more rational consideration of the determinants of myocardial oxygen consumption and the implications of these factors in disease states.

New Goals for Social Information

In this period of confusing social change, a do mestic "intelligence gap" impedes rational consideration of both public and private policy choices. An intelligent strategy for narrowing this gap requires action on many fronts. One of these is to remedy the "concept lag" produced by the comparability-relevance conflict and other factors. As indi cated by the table "Indicator Suggestions" (and the similar table in the Gross-Springer article in the May 1967 volume of THE ANNALS), this is the main task assumed by most of the authors in both volumes. Instead of discussing statistical techniques, they have concentrated on conceptual innovations that make it possible to upgrade obsolescent data and obtain new forms of social information, both quantitative and qualitative.

VTOL control power requirements reappraised.

One of the crucial items in the design of operational VTOL aircraft is the specification of realistic control power requirements for low-speed flight conditions. Various attempts to develop empirical design requirements have yielded inconsistent results that have often been subject to individual interpretation. This paper examines the problem from a fundamental, analytical viewpoint, viz., the computation of control power as the output of a randomly disturbed mechanical system. Use of the proposed method also permits the rational consideration of closely related handling quality aspects. Contrary to data available in the VTOL literature, this paper shows that control system sensitivity and power are not strongly related, although both can affect the vehicle handling qualities. The method probably exhibits its greatest utility as a preliminary design tool, where it can serve to evaluate competing system designs quantitatively, even with estimated system characteristics. Numerical examples are presented to illustrate the application of the method. The main disadvantages of the method are the requirements for detailed knowledge of the maneuver requirements, the atmospheric turbulence, and the airframe stability derivatives. An intimate knowledge of analytical handling qualities is also a prerequisite.

Measuring Malapportionment

In addition to the legal and political implications of the case, the United States Supreme Court's decision in Baker v. Carr brought sharply into public focus the technical problem of how to measure legislative malapportionment. The case itself exemplifies these various dimensions of the issue, for the majority opinion of Mr. Justice Clark and the dissenting opinion of Mr. Justice Harlan disagree not only regarding the law and the public policy of judicial intervention; they are also in manifest disagreement concerning “the facts” of malapportionment in Tennessee as of the time of the decision in March 1962. Our survey of the scholarly literature on the subject of apportionment, during the past decade, convinces us that the contributions of political scientists (and other commentators on the question) have made less than satisfactory progress thus far in the direction of devising an adequate metric to assist in the evaluation of what all concede is today a major problem in the theory and practice of democratic politics. In the absence of a reliable and valid method for measuring differences in apportionment along a common dimension, it is difficult to see how rational consideration of the normative aspects of the issue may be possible.

Pakistan's Foreign Policy: An Analysis of Pakistani Fears and Interests

Every country pursues her foreign policy in accordance with her national interests. These interests depend upon a number of factors like cultural and historical traditions, geography, economic and political objectives. But in this medley of interests there often is an overriding objective which is not based purely on rational considerations. Every country has a ruling passion in her foreign policy. When one calls it a passion, one is not suggesting that this is something entirely emotional or irrational. It may be based on genuine fears and hatreds which have accumulated over the years and which may be intertwined with material and religious considerations. Pakistan is no exception to this. Indeed very few countries were born in an atmosphere surcharged with intense illwill and mutual hatred as Pakistan was in 1947 as a result of the partition of the sub-continent. Almost every action of Pakistan can be interpreted as being motivated by fear of India. She complains that India opposed her very formation and that her policy of intense hostility continues unabated. India, both in manpower and material and military strength, is vastly superior to Pakistan. Before India's border clash with China, even with the aid Pakistan was receiving from the United States, her armed forces never exceeded more than one-third of India's strength. After sixteen years of Pakistan's independent existence, and even after India's humiliating defeat in the border clash with China, Mr. Nehru in an inter. view declared that Indo-Pakistani confederation remains our ultimate end.' Similarly, Pakistan alleges that India has been promoting subversive activity in East Pakistan and that in the event of a military conflict her first and relatively easy target would be East Pakistan. American aid to India has only accentuated Pakistan's fear in the sense that a well. equipped Indian army meant for China in the North-East Frontier Agency would be so positioned as to be able to wheel round swiftly to attack East Pakistan.2 Thus, Dawn in an editorial observed: If the main concern of the Christian West is the containment of Chinese Communism, the main concern of Muslim Pakistan is the containment of militarist and militant Hinduism.v3 One may find all this a bit exaggerated, but the fact remains that Pakistan joined the various defense pacts with the United States largely to protect her interests against the future aggression of

Sociopsychological Characteristics of Patients Obtaining Vasectomies from Urologists

This article is part of a longitudinal evaluation of effects of vasectomy on behavior and personality. 48 subjects who obtained vasectomies from a urologist in the San Diego area during a 9 month interval in 1961 were the subjects of this study. Model age was 28 years; they had been married for a modal 4 years, and had a modal number of 3 children. They had tried other contraceptives and were dissatisfied with them for various reasons. The respondents filled out a special questionnaire and a Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI). The questionnaire was on the reasons for wanting the operation, use of other contraceptives, attitudes, etc. The results indicated that for the majority the stated reasons for not wanting additional children were socioeconomic. 1/3 of the men were college graduates who regarded themselves as in good or excellent health, and who were overwhelmingly Protestant. 14 of the 48 respondents stated that the operation was advised by a physician. The men were not overanxious and did not show an extreme tendency for pathology of any sort. The conclusion drawn from this sample is that the subjects were motivated primarily by rational considerations and were relatively free of unconscious neurotic concern about the consequences of the operation.

Sore throats, streptococcal infections, and prevention of rheumatic fever

Recent advances in laboratory and clinical investigation have shown the constant association of acute rheumatic fever with Group A beta-hemolytic streptococcal infections. Attempts to prevent rheumatic fever are accordingly aimed at eradication of Streptococci. This is an elusive target because there are no routine, simple clinical or laboratory indications of streptococcal infection. Patients with streptococcal infections may have sore throats but often are asymptomatic or have non-specific upper respiratory symptoms. Tests for Streptococci in the throat can be done easily but show only that the organism is present; they do not prove it is the causing infection. Antibody measurements can detect infection, but these tests are complex, cumbersome, and often require long delays to await acquisition of the sequential specimens required for demonstrating a change in titer. In preventing first attacks of rheumatic fever, physicians must find and then eradicate asymptomatic or atypical streptococcal infections as well as those that produce sore throats. Oral or parenteral penicillin, in adequate dosage, is the agent of choice for this purpose. Sulfonamides should not be employed therapeutically; erythromycin provides a feasible alternative when the use of penicillin is precluded. The major features used in deciding whether infection is present are a sore throat, and exudate, together with laboratory evidence of streptococcal infection. In preventing recurrent attacks of rheumatic fever in susceptible patients, physicians cannot rely on attempts to find and then treat streptococcal infections because the risk of missing asymptomatic infections is too great. Therefore, prevention of rheumatic recurrences requires continuous antimicrobial prophylaxis. At present, the most effective agent is a monthly injection of long-acting parenteral benzathine penicillin. The most effective oral agent to date has been sulfadiazine, 1.0 gram daily. Although it is currently recommended that all rheumatic patients maintain prophyl-axis indefinitely, rational considerations suggest that more finite durations can be planned for some patients on the basis of age, cardiac status, and length of time elapsed since the previous rheumatic attack.