Implementation Of Rapid Response System Research Articles

Routine Medical Emergency Team Assessments of Patients Discharged From the PICU: Description of a Medical Emergency Team Follow-Up Program.

This study describes one follow-up program in the Ontario Rapid-Response System project consisting of routine medical emergency team visits of patients discharged from the PICU consisting of two planned visits within 48 hours following discharge. Study purpose was to describe interventions provided and the patient characteristics associated with medical emergency team utilization. Retrospective cohort study. Tertiary Pediatric Hospital, Children's Hospital of Eastern Ontario, Ottawa, Canada. Discharged pediatric patients from PICU. Data over 41 months were obtained from a prospectively maintained rapid-response system database. Major medical emergency team support was defined as an early unplanned visit, intervention, or readmission during the follow-up period. Interrupted time-series analysis comparing the 2 years preceding rapid-response system implementation with the subsequent 4 years demonstrated a statistically significant immediate change in PICU readmission rate (-5.5%, p = 0.0001). There were 1,805 patients followed after PICU discharge. During the 48-hour planned follow-up period, 4% of patients received an unplanned medical emergency team visit and 13% received an active intervention. Analysis of the first medical emergency team visit identified that 10% received major medical emergency team support. After the initial visit, 6% of patients received major medical emergency team support with predictive characteristics being an unplanned first visit (odds ratio, 3.7; 95% CI, 1.6-8.5) or an intervention during the first visit (odds ratio, 3.5; 95% CI, 2.1-5.8). Multiple diseased organs were associated with major medical emergency team support after the initial visit for recent surgical patients (odds ratio, 3.0 vs 1.2; p = 0.03). Routine medical emergency team visits following PICU discharge reduced the risk of early readmission. Our results suggest that one in seven patients in the follow-up program receive major medical emergency team support. We suggest a follow-up program with at least one routine medical emergency team visit within the first 24 hours of discharge with a second planned visit reserved for complex postsurgical patients.

Long-term culture change related to rapid response system implementation.

Increasing attention to patient safety in training hospitals may come at the expense of trainee autonomy and professional growth. This study sought to examine changes in medical trainees' self-reported behaviour after the institution-wide implementation of a rapid response system. We conducted a two-point cross-sectional survey of medical trainees in 2006, during the implementation of a rapid response system, and in 2010, in a single academic medical centre. A novel instrument was used to measure trainee likelihood of calling for supervisory assistance, perception of autonomy, and comfort in managing decompensating patients. Non-parametric tests to assess for change were used and year of training was evaluated as an effect modifier. Response rates were 38% in 2006 and 70% in 2010. After 5 years of the full implementation of the rapid response system, residents were significantly more likely to report calling their attending physicians for assistance (rising from 40% to 65% of relevant situations; p < 0.0001). Year of training was a significant effect modifier. Interns felt significantly more comfortable in managing acutely ill patients; juniors and seniors felt significantly less concerned about their autonomy at 5 years after the implementation of the rapid response system. These changes were mirrored in the actual use of the rapid response system, which increased by 41% during the 5-year period after adjustment for patient volume (p < 0.0001). A primary team-focused implementation of a rapid response system was associated with durable changes in resident physicians' reported behaviour, including increased comfort with involving more experienced physicians and managing unstable patients.

The habitus of ‘rescue’ and its significance for implementation of rapid response systems in acute health care

The need to focus on patient safety and improve the quality and consistency of medical care in acute hospital settings has been highlighted in a number of UK and international reports. When patients on a hospital ward become acutely unwell there is often a window of opportunity for staff, patients and relatives to contribute to the ‘rescue’ process by intervening in the trajectory of clinical deterioration. This paper explores the social and institutional processes associated with the practice of rescue, and implications for the implementation and effectiveness of rapid response systems (RRSs) within acute health care. An ethnographic case study was conducted in 2009 in two UK hospitals (focussing on the medical directorates in each organisation). Data collection involved 180 h of observation, 35 staff interviews (doctors, nurses, health care assistants and managers) and documentary review. Analysis was informed by Bourdieu's logic of practice and his relational concept of the ‘field’ of the general medical ward. Three themes illustrated the nature of rescue work within the field and collective rules which guided associated occupational distinction practices: (1) the ‘dirty work’ of vital sign recording and its distinction from diagnostic (higher order) interpretive work; (2) the moral order of legitimacy claims for additional help; and (3) professional deference and the selective managerial control of rescue work. The discourse of rescue provided a means of exercising greater control over clinical uncertainty. The acquisition of ‘rescue capital’ enabled the social positioning of health care assistants, nurses and doctors, and shaped use of the RRS on the wards. Boundary work, professional legitimation and jurisdictional claims defined the social practice of rescue, as clinical staff had to balance safety, professional and organisational concerns within the field. This paper offers a nuanced understanding of patient safety on the front-line, challenging notions of the ‘quick fix’ safety solution.

Detection and management of the deteriorating ward patient: an evaluation of nursing practice.

To audit ward nursing practice in the adherence to an early warning scoring protocol in the detection and initial management of the deteriorating ward patient and investigate factors that may impact on practice. Hospital inpatients can experience unexpected physiological deterioration leading to poor outcomes and death. Although deterioration can be signalled in the patients' physiological symptoms, evidence suggests that ward staff can miss, misinterpret or mismanage the signs. Rapid response systems have been implemented to address this problem. The rapid response systems consists of two phases: the afferent phase involves monitoring the patient, recognising deterioration and referring to more expert help and the efferent phase involves expert teams assessing and treating the patient. Research has tended to concentrate on the efferent phase of the process and has so far failed to show a significant impact on patient outcome. Using cardiac arrest as a surrogate marker for deterioration, patient records were retrospectively reviewed during the 12 hours prior to the cardiac arrest event. Data relating to nursing practice and adherence to the early warning scoring protocol were extracted and analysed. The findings suggest that ward nurses' monitoring of patients' observations has improved compared with earlier research, but errors in early warning scoring and nonadherence to referral protocols are still a problem. A number of potentially influential factors on nursing practice were tested, but only deterioration occurring outside normal weekdays was associated with a reduced quality of nursing adherence to protocol. The implementation of rapid response systems may have been an oversimplified solution to the highly complex problem of undetected patient deterioration. There are a multitude of contributory factors to the problem of noncompliance to early warning scoring protocols, and possible solutions will need to reflect the breadth, depth and complexity of the problem if we are to improve patient experience and outcome. An audit of nursing practice against an early warning scoring protocol based on national recommendations and standards in the recording of and response to physiological deterioration in the ward patient has shown that vital signs recording has improved, but early warning scoring accuracy and referral to more expert help remain suboptimal. By identifying areas of suboptimal practice, strategies for education and training and service development can be better informed. More in-depth evidence on factors that may impact the quality of nursing practice has been identified. Problems with rapid response systems assumptions have been highlighted, which may facilitate the implementation of more realistic solutions for managing the deteriorating ward patient.

Barriers to calling for urgent assistance despite a comprehensive pediatric rapid response system.

Rapid response systems (RRSs) aim to identify and rescue hospitalized patients whose condition is deteriorating before respiratory or cardiac arrest occurs. Previous studies of RRS implementation have shown variable effectiveness, which may be attributable in part to barriers preventing staff from activating the system. To proactively identify barriers to calling for urgent assistance that exist despite recent implementation of a comprehensive RRS in a children's hospital. Qualitative study using open-ended, semistructured interviews of 27 nurses and 30 physicians caring for patients in general medical and surgical care areas. The following themes emerged: (1) Self-efficacy in recognizing deteriorating conditions and activating the medical emergency team (MET) were considered strong determinants of whether care would be appropriately escalated for children in a deteriorating condition. (2) Intraprofessional and interprofessional hierarchies were sometimes challenging to navigate and led to delays in care for patients whose condition was deteriorating. (3) Expectations of adverse interpersonal or clinical outcomes from MET activations and intensive care unit transfers could strongly shape escalation-of-care behavior (eg, reluctance among subspecialty attending physicians to transfer patients to the intensive care unit for fear of inappropriate management). The results of this study provide an in-depth description of the barriers that may limit RRS effectiveness. By recognizing and addressing these barriers, hospital leaders may be able to improve the RRS safety culture and thus enhance the impact of the RRS on rates of cardiac arrest, respiratory arrest, and mortality outside the intensive care unit.

Financial consequences of the implementation of a rapid response system on a surgical ward.

Rapid response systems (RRSs) are recommended by the Institute for Healthcare Improvement and implemented worldwide. Our study on the effects of an RRS showed a non-significant decrease in cardiac arrest and/or unexpected death from 0.5% to 0.25%. Unplanned intensive care unit (ICU) admissions increased significantly from 2.5% to 4.2% without a decrease in APACHE II scores. In this study, we estimated the mean costs of an RRS per patient day and tested the hypothesis that admitting less severely ill patients to the ICU reduces costs. A cost analysis of an RRS on a surgical ward, including costs for implementation, a 1-day training programme for nurses, nursing time for extra vital signs observation, medical emergency team (MET) consults and differences in unplanned ICU days before and after RRS implementation. To test the hypothesis, we performed a scenario analysis with a mean APACHE II score of 14 points instead of the empirical 17.6 points for the unplanned ICU admissions, including 33% extra MET consults and 22% extra unplanned ICU admissions. Mean RRS costs were €26.87 per patient-day: implementation €0.33 (1%), training €0.90 (3%), nursing time spent on extended observation of vital signs €2.20 (8%), MET consults €0.57 (2%) and increased number of unplanned ICU days after RRS implementation €22.87 (85%). In the scenario analysis mean costs per patient-day were €10.18. The costs for extra unplanned ICU days were relatively high but the remaining RRS costs were relatively low. The 'APACHE II 14' scenario confirmed the hypothesis that costs for the number of unplanned ICU days can be reduced if less severely ill patients are referred to the ICU. Based upon these findings, our hospital stimulates earlier referral to the ICU, although further implementation strategies are needed to achieve these aims.

The Medical Emergency Team Call

Several studies have questioned the effectiveness of rapid-response systems when measured by outcomes such as decreased overall hospital mortality or cardiac arrest rates. We studied an alternative outcome of rapid-response system implementation, namely, its effect on goals of care and designation of do not resuscitate. Retrospective chart review. Veterans Administration Hospital in New York City. All patients requiring a medical emergency team call. None : Monthly hospital census and discharge data, death occurrences, and do-not-resuscitate order placements were collected over an 8-year pre-medical emergency team and 5-year post-medical emergency team period. All medical emergency team calls and subsequent transfers to a critical care unit were reviewed and correlated to the placement and timing of do-not-resuscitate orders. Interrupted time-series analysis was used to evaluate the impact of the medical emergency team implementation on the change in trend of do-not-resuscitate orders and the hospital mortality. A total of 390 medical emergency team calls were associated with 109 do-not-resuscitate orders (28%). Of the 209 medical emergency team calls (54%) resulting in transfer to a critical care unit, 66 were associated with do-not-resuscitate orders, 73% of which were obtained after transfer. The odds of becoming do not resuscitate for a patient going to the ICU after the medical emergency team call were 2.9 (95% CI, 1.6-5.5; p = 0.001) times greater than for patients staying on the floors after the medical emergency team call. The medical emergency team implementation significantly changed the trend of do-not-resuscitate orders (p < 0.001) but had no impact on hospital mortality rate (p = 0.638). Implementation of a rapid-response system was associated with an increase in do-not-resuscitate order placement. As a sentinel event, medical emergency team activation and transfer to a critical care unit foster consideration of goals of care and frequently results in a transition to a palliative care strategy.

Impact of Rapid Response System Implementation on Critical Deterioration Events in Children

Rapid response systems aim to identify and rescue deteriorating hospitalized patients. Previous pediatric rapid response system implementation studies have shown variable effectiveness in preventing rare, catastrophic outcomes such as cardiac arrest and death. To evaluate the impact of pediatric rapid response system implementation inclusive of a medical emergency team and an early warning score on critical deterioration, a proximate outcome defined as unplanned transfer to the intensive care unit with noninvasive or invasive mechanical ventilation or vasopressor infusion in the 12 hours after transfer. Quasi-experimental study with interrupted time series analysis using piecewise regression. At an urban, tertiary care children's hospital in the United States, we evaluated 1810 unplanned transfers from the general medical and surgical wards to the pediatric and neonatal intensive care units that occurred during 370,504 non-intensive care patient-days between July 1, 2007, and May 31, 2012. Implementation of a hospital-wide rapid response system inclusive of a medical emergency team and an early warning score in February 2010. Rate of critical deterioration events, adjusted for season, ward, and case mix. Rapid response system implementation was associated with a significant downward change in the preintervention trajectory of critical deterioration and a 62% net decrease relative to the preintervention trend (adjusted incidence rate ratio = 0.38; 95% CI, 0.20-0.75). We observed absolute reductions in ward cardiac arrests (from 0.03 to 0.01 per 1000 non-intensive care patient-days) and deaths during ward emergencies (from 0.01 to 0.00 per 1000 non-intensive care patient-days), but these were not statistically significant (P = .21 and P = .99, respectively). Among all unplanned transfers, critical deterioration was associated with a 4.97-fold increased risk of death (95% CI, 3.33-7.40; P < .001). Rapid response system implementation reversed an increasing trend of critical deterioration. Cardiac arrest and death were extremely rare at baseline, and their reductions were not statistically significant despite using nearly 5 years of data. Hospitals seeking to measure rapid response system performance may consider using valid proximate outcomes like critical deterioration in addition to rare, catastrophic outcomes.

Effect of implementation of a rapid response system on protocol adherence in a surgical ward

Objective: To describe the implementation of a rapid response system and adherence to its afferent limb in order to identify key elements for improvement. Implementation: We developed a multifaceted implementation strategy to introduce the Rapid Response System (RRS) on a 60-bed surgical ward of a university hospital. The strategy included the use of clear objectives, key leaders, an early warning score (EWS) observation protocol and a two-tiered medical emergency team (MET) warning protocol, a 1-day training program including a before-after knowledge test, mandatory for nurses and optional for ward physicians, reminders and feedback. Study design and methods: We retrospectively analyzed a sample of 10,653 patient days and 101 medical records of patients with a serious adverse event (SAE). Outcome measures were EWS recording rates, the nurse to ward physician and the ward physician to the MET calling rates following abnormal EWS recordings, and the indicators triggering these calls. Results: EWS recordings were present in 90% of the day shifts, 88% of the evening shifts and 80% of the night shifts. EWSs were recorded at least once in 92/101 medical records in the three days before an SAE; in 91/101 records EWSs were abnormal at least once. In case of an abnormal score, the nurse called the ward physician once or more in 87% (79/91). After being called by the nurse, the ward physician called the MET once or more in 75% (59/79). However, in 18% (15/79) there was a delay of one or two days before the ward physician/MET was called. Overall, medical emergency team calls were absent or delayed in over 50%. Conclusions: After RRS implementation, recording of the EWS was high. Adequate warning in case of abnormal scores was suboptimal in nurses as well as ward physicians. Future implementation strategies should therefore be aimed at the interdisciplinary team.

Cost and Outcome of Medical Emergency Teams (COMET) Study. Design and Rationale of a DutchMulti-Center Study

Aims: Description of a study protocol to analyze the effectiveness of the sequential implementation of a Rapid Response System (RRS) on the incidence of the composite endpoint of cardiac arrest, unplanned ICU admission, and mortality rates. Study Design: The COMET trial is a before-after, non-randomized multi-center trial. Place and Duration of Study: The COMET trial was held in the Netherlands in fourteen Dutch hospitals from April 2009 until November 2011. Each hospital included two surgical and two general medicine nursing wards. Methodology: Prior to the introduction of the RRS, endpoints were collected for 5 months as part of a baseline assessment. The RRS was introduced in two steps. Initially, two tools were introduced during 7 months for early detection of the deteriorating patient: the Modified Early Warning Score (MEWS) and for structured communication, the Situation-Background-Assessment-Recommendation (SBAR) tool. During the next 15 months the Rapid Response Team (RRT) was operational in addition to both the detection and communication tool. Generalized Estimating Equations (GEE) analysis of trends in outcomes will be performed. The cost description will primarily focus on the program costs associated with training and education sessions and the time invested in all consultations originating from patient care on the study wards. Conclusion: The COMET study will provide evidence on the clinical outcomes and costs of the implementation of Rapid Response System. This will include an analysis to explore the possible effect of a Rapid Response Team as add-on to the MEWS and SBAR tools for early recognition of the deteriorating patient on the nursing ward.

小児専門病院におけるrapid response system導入の効果

小児専門病院におけるrapid response system導入の効果

Implementing change in health services: the case of rapid response systems

Rapid response systems (RRSs) have been introduced in hospitals to prevent delays in medical management of care for patients whose clinical status deteriorates unexpectedly. An RRS consists of three limbs and its implementation affects the entire hospital organisation. This paper aims to provide insights into the approaches used by Dutch hospitals for RRS implementation and the factors influencing the approaches chosen. Starting from a conceptual framework emphasising the importance of the process, content and context for innovation implementation, our qualitative study shows the breadth of approaches used in practice. In-depth insights into the implementation process, content and context – as well as the relationships between them – extend existing theory on RRS implementation and will help hospitals tailor their implementation approach to organisational characteristics.

Effects of a rapid response system on quality of life: a prospective cohort study in surgical patients before and after implementing a rapid response system

BackgroundThe aim of a rapid response system (RRS) is to improve the timely recognition and treatment of ward patients with deteriorating vital signs The system is based on a set of clinical criteria that are used to assess patient’s vital signs on a general ward. Once a patient is evaluated as critical, a medical emergency team is activated to more thoroughly assess the patient’s physical condition and to initiate treatment. The medical emergency team included a critical care physician and a critical care nurse.AimTo assess the effect of an RRS on health-related quality of life (HRQOL).MethodsProspective cohort study in surgical patients before and after implementing an RRS. HRQOL was measured using the EuroQol-5 dimensions (EQ-5D) and the EQ visual analogue scale (VAS) at pre surgery and at 3 and 6 months following surgery.ResultsNo statistical significant effects of RRS implementation on the EQ-5D index and EQ-VAS were found. This was also true for the subpopulation of patients with an unplanned intensive care unit admission. Regarding the EQ-5D dimensions, deterioration in the ‘mobility’ and ‘usual activities’ dimensions in the post-implementation group was significantly less compared to the pre-implementation group with a respective mean difference of 0.08 (p = 0.03) and 0.09 (p = 0.04) on a three-point scale at 6 months. Lower pre-surgery EQ-5D index and higher American Society of Anesthesiologists physical status (ASA-PS) scores were significantly associated with lower EQ-5D index scores at 3 and 6 months following surgery.ConclusionsImplementation of an RRS did not convincingly affect HRQOL following major surgery. We question if HRQOL is an adequate measure to assess the influence of an RRS. Pre-surgery HRQOL- and ASA-PS scores were strongly associated with HRQOL outcomes and may have abated the influence of the RRS implementation.

Emergency Department Abnormal Vital Sign “Triggers” Program Improves Time to Therapy

Implementation of rapid response systems to identify deteriorating patients in the inpatient setting has demonstrated improved patient outcomes. A "trigger" system using vital sign abnormalities to initiate evaluation by physician was recently described as an effective rapid response method. The objective was to evaluate the effect of a triage-based trigger system on the primary outcome of time to physician evaluation and the secondary outcomes of therapeutic intervention, antibiotics, and disposition in emergency department (ED) patients. A separate-samples pre- and postintervention study was conducted using retrospective chart review of outcomes in ED patients for three arbitrarily selected 5-day periods in 2007 (pretriggers) and 2008 (posttriggers). There were 2,165 and 2,212 charts in the pre- and posttriggers chart review, with 71 and 79 patients meeting trigger criteria. Trigger criteria used to identify patients at triage were: heart rate of <40 or >130 beats/min, respiratory rate of <8 or >30 breaths/min, systolic blood pressure of <90 mm Hg, and oxygen saturation of <90% on room air. Median times (in minutes) were compared between pre- and posttrigger groups with interquartile ranges (IQRs 25-75), with the Wilcoxon rank sum test used to determine statistical significance. Overall median times were decreased among the posttriggers group. Median times to physician evaluation (21 minutes [IQR = 13-41 minutes] vs. 11 minutes [IQR = 5-21 minutes]; p < 0.001), first intervention (58 minutes [IQR = 20-139 minutes] vs. 26 minutes [IQR = 11-71 minutes]; p < 0.01), and antibiotics (110 minutes [IQR = 74-171 minutes] vs. 69 minutes [IQR = 23-130 minutes]; p < 0.01) were significant. Median times to disposition (177 minutes [IQR = 121-303 minutes] vs. 162 minutes [IQR = 114-230 minutes]; p = 0.18) were not significant. Implementation of an ED triggers program allows for more rapid time to physician evaluation, therapeutic intervention, and antibiotics.

Rapid Response Systems in the Netherlands

Sixty-three (approximately 80%) of the 81 hospitals that responded to a survey sent to all hospitals in The Netherlands with nonpediatric intensive care units had a rapid response system (RRS) in place or were in the final process of starting one. Among many other findings regarding RRS infrastructure and implementation, only 38% of the hospitals allowed nurses to activate the rapid response team without physician consent.

Clinical emergencies and outcomes in patients admitted to a surgical versus medical service

Background The merit of rapid response systems (RRSs) remains controversial. A tailored approach to specific groups may increase the efficacy of these teams. The purpose of this study was to compare differences in triggers for RRS activation, interventions, and outcomes in patients on medical and surgical services. Methods A retrospective review RRS events was performed. The incidence of out of ICU cardiac arrests and hospital mortality were compared 2 years prior to and following RRS implementation. Call trigger, interventions, and disposition between medical and surgical patients were compared over a 15 month period. Results Out of ICU cardiac arrest was significantly more prevalent in the medical group both before and after implementation of RRS. The out of ICU cardiac arrest rate decreased 32% in the surgical group ( p = 0.05) but hospital mortality did not change. Out of ICU cardiac arrest decreased 40% in the medical group ( p < 0.001) and hospital mortality decreased 25% ( p < 0.001) following RRS implementation. There were 1082 RRS activations, 286 surgical and 796 medical. Surgical patients were more likely to have received sedation within 24 h of evaluation (14% vs. 4%, p < 0.001). The majority of patients in both cohorts were discharged alive. Conclusion Implementation of a RRS had greater impact on reduction of out of ICU cardiac arrest and mortality in medical inpatients. Triggers for activation and interventions were similar between groups; however, surgical patients demonstrated substantial risk for decompensation within the first 24 h following operation. More research is needed to evaluate the disproportionate benefit observed between cohorts.

A reduction in cardiac arrests and duration of clinical instability after implementation of a paediatric rapid response system

ObjectiveTo determine the effects of a multifaceted paediatric rapid response system on the duration of predefined clinical instability and the subsequent rate of cardiac arrests.MethodsAn interrupted time series study coupled...

The impact of Rapid Response System on delayed emergency team activation patient characteristics and outcomes—A follow-up study

Objective To evaluate the impact of Rapid Response System (RRS) maturation on delayed Medical Emergency Team (MET) activation and patient characteristics and outcomes. Design Observational study. Setting Tertiary hospital. Patients Recent cohort of 200 patients receiving a MET review and early control cohort of 400 patients receiving a MET review five years earlier at the start of RRS implementation. Measurements and results We obtained information including demographics, clinical triggers for and timing of MET activation in relation to the first documented MET review criterion (activation delay) and patient outcomes. We found that patients in the recent cohort were older, more likely to be surgical and to have Not For Resuscitation (NFR) orders before MET review. Furthermore, fewer patients (22.0% vs. 40.3%, p < 0.001) had delayed MET activation. When delayed activation occurred, there was a non-significant difference in its duration (early cohort: 12.0 [IQR 23.0] h vs. recent cohort: 9.0 [IQR 20.5] h, p = 0.554). Similarly, unplanned ICU admissions decreased from 31.3% to 17.3% ( p < 0.001). Delayed MET activation was independently associated with greater risk of unplanned ICU admission and hospital mortality (O.R. 1.79, 95% C.I. 1.33.–2.93, p = 0.003 and O.R. 2.18, 95% C.I. 1.42–3.33, p < 0.001, respectively). Being part of the recent cohort was independently associated with a decreased risk of delayed activation (O.R. 0.45, 95% C.I. 0.30–0.67, p < 0.001) and unplanned ICU admission (O.R. 0.5, 95% C.I. 0.32–0.78, p = 0.003). Conclusions Maturation of a RRS is associated with a decrease in the incidence of unplanned ICU admissions and MET activation delay. Assessment of a RRS early in the course of its implementation may underestimate its efficacy.