Rape Myth Beliefs Research Articles

The Structure of Rape Attitudes for Men and Women: A Three-Factor Model

The present study used exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses to evaluate the generalizability of extant measurement models derived for the Rape Myth Acceptance Scale (RMA; Burt, 1980; Briere, Malamuth, & Check, 1985). For samples of females restricted or unrestricted by current romantic relationship status, and for an unrestricted sample of males, models were inadequate. For both female samples, RMA responses were best explained by a modified 12-item version of Briere et al.'s original model. The new model consisted of three correlated factors (Disbelief of Rape Claims, Blame the Victim, Rape Reports as Manipulation). Demonstrating gender invariance, multi-group analyses revealed that the three-factor model provided a comparable goodness-of-fit for male data. Additional analyses demonstrated the discriminant validity of the three RMA factors when considered as a function of individual differences in dispositional empathy among males and females. Future researchers can use the oblique three-factor model to better conceptualize and measure rape myth beliefs.

Blacks' and Whites' Perceptions of Interracial and Intraracial Date Rape

The prevalence of rape myths contributes to victims' reluctance to report rapes. Black (n = 30) and White (n = 96) U.S. college students responded to the Rape Myth Scale (Burt, 1980) and read a scenario of an acquaintance rape; the race of the perpetrator and victim (Black or White) were varied. The respondents assessed the victim's and perpetrator's responsibility and evaluated the incident. As hypothesized, the respondents with strong beliefs in rape myths were more tolerant of the rapist and less tolerant of the victim than were those with weaker beliefs. There was limited support for the myth of the Black rapist and White victim; however, the myth of the Black rapist appeared particularly strong among the Black respondents. The women responded more negatively to the rapist and more positively to the victim than the men did. Such biases in attitudes toward rape could keep women from reporting rapes and accused rapists from receiving fair trials.

Rape myths as neutralizing cognitions: evidence for a causal impact of anti-victim attitudes on men's self-reported likelihood of raping

Men's rape myth acceptance (RMA; prejudiced beliefs that serve to exonerate the rapist and blame the victim) has been shown to correlate positively with self-reported rape proclivity (RP). To explore the causal pathway underlying this correlation, two experiments were conducted in which the relative cognitive accessibility of RMA and RP was varied. Male students were asked to report their RP in the context of a scale assessing attraction toward sexual aggression (Experiment 1) or in response to five realistic date-rape scenarios (Experiment 2), either before or after they filled out a 20-item RMA scale. In both studies, the correlation of RMA and RP was significantly greater in the after than in the before condition, suggesting that the belief in rape myths has a causal influence on men's proclivity to rape. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Effects of a sexual assault peer education program on men’s belief in rape myths

An all-male sexual assault peer education program focusing on how to help a survivor led to a decrease in rape myth belief among predominantly Caucasian participants immediately after and two months following a one hour program. Program participants believed fewer rape myths than the initial testing of a control group. In addition, a clear majority of participants reported a decreased likelihood of being sexually coercive as a result of attending the program. A new method of decreasing men’s rape myth acceptance by learning how to help a survivor is supported.

Clothing, Sex of Subject, and Rape Myth Acceptance as Factors Affecting Attributions about an Incident of Acquaintance Rape

The purpose of this study was to investigate effects of victim's clothing, sex of subject, and rape myth acceptance on attributions concerning an incident of acquaintance rape. Subjects were male and female university students who read a scenario depicting acquaintance rape, viewed a photograph of one of three female models in a short, moderate, or long skirt, answered ten questions concerning their perceptions of the incident, and completed a Rape Myth Acceptance scale. Main effects were found for sex of subject, for rape myth acceptance, and for victims's clothing. There were 2-way interactions between rape myth acceptance and victim's clothing for four questions. Results of this study document existence of a belief in, and potential effects of, rape myths. Since belief in rape myths is likely to interact with clothing cues to affect perceptions of a victim, it is important that a rape victim's clothing not be allowed as evidence in a trial.

Attitudes toward rape: Gender and ethnic differences across Asian and Caucasian college students

Previous research has demonstrated that males have a greater tendency to hold erroneous beliefs about rape than females. However, limited cross-cultural studies, particularly of Asians, have been done in this area. The present investigation examined attitudes toward rape victims and belief in rape myths across 302 Asian and Caucasian college students. Subjects were recruited from two college campuses in Orange County, California, and were from predominantly middle-income backgrounds. None of the Caucasian students and a minority (36.25%) of the Asian subjects identified their particular ethnic group(s) of origin. Of the Asian subjects who specified their ethnicity, the majority were of Southeast Asian and Pacific Islander descent. Results indicated significant differences across ethnicity and gender. Asians were more likely to endorse negative attitudes toward rape victims and greater belief in rape myths than their Caucasian counterparts; males endorsed greater negativity toward rape victims and more acceptance of rape myths than did females. Asian subjects who endorsed greater acculturation (Western affiliation) differed significantly from low acculturated subjects on all dependent variables. Results are discussed in regard to cross-cultural differences and gender. Culturally sensitive rape awareness outreach targeting potentially high risk groups, such as Asian college students, is encouraged.

A preliminary study of eighth grade students' attitudes toward rape myths and women's roles.

This preliminary study examined the relationship between sex-role stereotypes of women and beliefs in rape myths among adolescents. A 35-item survey was completed by 211 female and males in eighth grade health classes. Findings indicate both females and males accept some rape myths and sex-role stereotyping of women. The data also indicated an association between belief in rape myths and sex-role stereotyping of women. Few racial and age differences emerged. The most profound differences involved gender. Most adolescents rejected rape myths, but 10% of girls and 30% of boys tended to accept rape myths. Most females (98.2%) and males (83.3%) rejected sex-role stereotypes of women. According to feminist perspective, sex-role stereotyping of women's role in society is associated with tolerance of sexual violence toward women.

Effects of violent pornography upon viewer's rape myth beliefs: A study of Japanese males

Abstract In order to examine the effects of pornography on beliefs in rape myths among Japanese men, the subjects' beliefs were measured before and after exposure to home video pornography. Before the exposure, 150 male students were asked to respond to scales regarding rape myths and rape proclivity. Of that number, seventy-two voluntarily participated in the film experiment and post-exposure measurement of rape myths. They viewed either a positive rape film in which a female victim expressed pleasure, a negative rape film in which she expressed pain, or a consenting sex film. The film viewing resulted in measurable effects on the subjects' subscription to rape myths, that is, those who viewed positive rape film rated that significantly higher percentages of women could enjoy rapes, as well as higher percentages of rape cases were invented by the victims, than those who viewed the films of the other two categories, The subjects' rape proclivity assessment correlated positively with some measures of belie...

Effects of Gender and Specific Dating Behaviors on Perceptions of Sex Willingness and Date Rape

This study evaluated how heterosexual men and women perceived specific dating behaviors and how their attitudes toward the behaviors related to willingness to engage in sexual intercourse and date rape. Responses were analyzed according to the subject's gender and gender role identity, as measured by the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI). All participants (N=458) received a questionnaire where "who asked?" and "who paid?" for the date were varied. Subjects indicated how much they thought the woman and man in the scenario wanted sex (female sex willingness and male sex willingness, respectively) and how justified the man in the scenario would be to have sex with the woman without her consent (rape justifiability). Female sex willingness was highest when the woman asked and/or paid for the date, and male sex willingness was highest when the man asked and/or paid for the date. Men's ratings of both the woman's and the man's sex willingness were consistently higher than the women's ratings. Gender role identity did not significantly affect the subjects' perceptions of sex willingness or rape justifiability. Finally, the subjects' gender, "who paid?", or "who asked?" did not affect rape justifiability ratings. (Abstract Adapted from Source: Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 1992. Copyright © 1992 by Guilford Publications) Date Rape Rape Causes Adult Perceptions Adult Female Adult Male Male Perceptions Female Perceptions Gender Differences Sexual Assault Perceptions Sexual Assault Causes Dating Violence Perceptions Dating Violence Causes Violence Against Women 12-99

Will Educational Materials Reduce Negative Effects of Exposure to Sexual Violence?

To study the effects of information designed to dissociate violence from sexuality on attitudes toward sexual violence, we constructed two brief films about the importance of concern for one's sexual partner and about the impact of rape on its victims. Both films were intended to modify mechanisms hypothesized to underlie associations between violence and sexuality by increasing sensitivity toward violent behavior and reducing aggressive tendencies associated with sexual cues. One of these films, or no informational film, was presented before showing one third of each group a commercial film that depicted sexual violence, nonviolent sexuality, or nonviolent, nonsexual material. Compared to the unbriefed group, the briefed groups showed a significant decline in beliefs in rape myths. They also reported greater empathy toward an alleged victim of rape, a greater tendency to find the accused assailant guilty, greater sensitivity to filmed violence against women, and greater physiological-emotional repulsion to filmed violence.

MALE RESPONSES TO FEMALE AGGRESSION

The effects on males (N= 60) of observing fictional aggression were assessed in a between-subjects design. Subjects were randomly assigned to view either a film clip of professional lady wrestlers, a mud wrestling segment or, to a no-film control condition. Both films produced negative changes in mood states, principally an increase in aggression and a decrease in social affection. Exposure to the films failed to produce changes in men's acceptance of interpersonal violence against women, rape myth beliefs or sexual callousness.

Beliefs About Rape and Women's Social Roles

Researchers dealing with feminist issues have proposed that sexual assaults on women are supported by social beliefs that encourage male domination and exploitation of women. One of the most influential sources for this position is Susan Brownmiller's (1975) social-historical analysis of rape, in which she argues that “rape myths” help support men's social and economical control of women. If this is true, beliefs in rape myths should be positively correlated with beliefs that restrict women's social roles and rights. This hypothesis was tested in four countries: United States, England, Israel, and West Germany. Two self-report scales were used, one measuring the acceptance of rape myths and the other measuring restrictive beliefs about women's social roles. Translations of the scales provided the instruments for the Israeli and West German subjects. Subjects for Phase 1, carried out in the United States, included female and male university undergraduates and women and men employed in a variety of occupations. Product-moment correlations between scores on the two scales were significant (p<.01) for all four groups, with r's ranging from .72 for employed women to .46 for employed men. Phase 2 was carried out in the United States, England, Israel, and West Germany. In addition to university graduates in all four countries, subjects included secondary school teachers from the United States and England, and women and men from a variety of other occupations in the United States. Acceptance of rape myths was significantly correlated (p<.01) with restrictive beliefs about women's social roles and rights in all but 1 of the 19 groups tested. The r's ranged from .87 for female teachers to .40 for male police in the United States. Social and educational implications of the confirmed hypothesis are discussed.

A guide to the literature on aggressive behavior

A guide to the literature on aggressive behavior

The effects of aggressive pornography on beliefs in rape myths: Individual differences

This experiment assessed the effects of media depictions that portray rape myths on men's beliefs in such myths. The study was conducted in two separate sessions. At the orientation session, measures of personality, motivation, experience, and aggressive tendencies were administered to 307 males. In the experimental session, 145 of these men were first exposed to one of eight audiotaped versions of a passage. One of these portrayed the myth that rape results in the victim's sexual arousal. Later, subjects listened to a second passage depicting either nonconsenting or consenting sex. Their perceptions of the second portrayal and their beliefs in rape myths were then measured. The findings provided support for the hypothesis that media depictions suggesting that rape results in the victim's arousal can contribute to men's beliefs in a similar rape myth. Moreover, analysis of the mediating role of individual differences indicated that men with relatively higher inclinations to aggress against women are particularly likely to be affected by media depictions of rape myths. It is suggested that these data may be explained best on the basis of information retrieval processes. In addition, it was found that power motives were consistently related to greater beliefs in rape myths.

Rape: A sexual stigma?

AbstractThe primary purpose of this study was to identify individual differences affecting perceptions of a rapist and a rape victim. It was hypothesized that sex of observer, attitudes towards women, sexuality, the rape itself and perceptions of the targets on a number of behavioral dimensions would predict target perception. Each subject rated one of four persons: a male rapist, a female rape victim, a male control target, or a female control target. The ratings reflected personal impressions of the target and degree of social distance desired. Not surprisingly, the rapist was perceived least favorably. The rape victim did not receive ratings different from the female control target. However, when individual differences were taken into account, it was found that negative attitudes towards women, belief in rape myths, and perceived target behavior (e.g. responsibility) were related to stigmatization of the rape victim, and predicted more favorable perceptions of the rapist. Sex of the observer and attitudes towards sexuality were not among the major predictors of target perception. Implications of these findings are discussed.

Perceived male sex orientation and beliefs about rape

This paper examines the relationship between male sex role orientation and beliefs in rape myths. Five variables were controlled: religious belief (fundamentalist), academic interest (nonarts and arts), sister relationship, and maternal employment. Data were collected by means of a questionnaire mailed to 400 male college students randomly chosen from selected academic areas. Tests of correlation were used to analyze these data. The results indicate (1) male sex role orientation is significantly correlated with general belief in rape myths; (2) religion (fundamentalist), academic interest (arts), and sister variable significantly increased the strength of the sex role/general rape belief relationship; and (3) male sex role orientation is significantly correlated with five specific rape myths.

Rape Proclivity Among Males

This article integrates the findings of a series of studies that empirically address contentions that many “normal” men possess a proclivity to rape. In these studies, an attempt was made to identify individuals with such a proclivity by asking male college students how likely they personally would be to rape if they could be assured of not being caught. On the average, about 35% indicated some likelihood of raping. To assess the validity of such reports as indicators of a proclivity to rape, the following three steps were taken: First, the literature was reviewed to identify responses that distinguished convicted rapists from the general population. The responses found to characterize rapists were greater acceptance of rape myths and relatively high sexual arousal to rape depictions. Second, the relationships between reported likelihood of raping and the responses found to characterize rapists were analyzed. The data clearly showed that in comparison with men who reported lower likelihood of raping, men who indicated higher likelihood were more similar to convicted rapists both in beliefs in rape myths and in sexual arousal to rape depictions. Third, the relationship between likelihood of raping reports and aggressive behavior was examined. It was found that higher reported likelihood of raping was associated with greater aggression against women within a laboratory setting. The overall pattern of the data is interpreted as supporting the validity of likelihood of raping ratings and consistent with contentions that many men have a proclivity to rape. Possible causes of such a propensity and directions for future research are discussed.