Rainwater Harvesting Structures Research Articles

Modeling Climate Change Impact on the Streamflow in the Upper Wabe Bridge Watershed in Wabe Shebele River Basin, Ethiopia

Climate change affects the availability of water resources by altering the pattern and magnitude of precipitation, temperature, and streamflow. The projection of climate change impact on the streamflow is used to identify the level of changes and desirable intervention measures. In this research, Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) model and the regional circulation model (RCM) outputs of CORDEX Africa climate model associated with mid and high-level Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP4.5 and RCP8.5) climate scenarios were used to evaluate the change in streamflow in two future projection scenarios (2041-2070 and 2071-2099). The study is directed to the Upper Wabe Bridge watershed found in the Wabe Shebele basin, Ethiopia. The result shows an increase in mean temperature by 3.46 and 5.15°C for RCP4.5; and 4.78 and 5.88°C for RCP8.5 in mid and long-term periods, respectively. The study also confirmed an increasing trend in annual precipitation by +26.3 and +31.85% for RCP4.5 and RCP8.5 climate scenarios, respectively, at the end of 21st century. In Kiremt (rainy) season precipitation shows an increasing trend by +44.28% and +59.34% for RCP4.5 and RCP8.5 climate scenarios, respectively, but Bega (dry) season show decreasing trend. The future projected annual streamflow shows increase trends under both climate scenarios in both projection periods. The mean seasonally streamflow decreases in the Belg (short rainy) season by -10.91% and increases in the Kiremt (rainy) season by 17.4%. Hence, the increment trend in streamflow during the Kiremt season will have the utmost significance for the requirement of storage and rainwater harvesting structures for irrigation development during dry season. Therefore, incorporating the possible effect of climate change is vital during water resources planning and development.

Impact Assessment of Artificial Recharge Structures on Kakatiya University Campus, Warangal Urban District, Telangana

The artificial recharge structures (ARS) project was taken up on Kakatiya University campus, Warangal urban district, Telangana state with the dual purpose of meeting the growing demand for water supply on campus and to demonstrate the benefits of artificial recharge to the students and society at large. Different types of site-specific recharge structures were developed in tune with the local hydrogeological conditions. 9 check dams, 2 mini-percolation tanks (MPT), 2 percolation tanks, 1 Gabion structure, 1 farm pond, and a series of continuous contour trenches, staggered contour trenches, and 69 rooftop rainwater harvesting structures at 19 different buildings were constructed. These structures together contributed 27.62 ham of water to the local aquifer in the year 2013; the estimate is substantiated by applying GEC methodology-1997. The mean water levels have risen by 8.41 m between 2012 and 2014 and a rising trend of 3.05 m is displayed on an average in hydrographs of the observed wells. Efficacy of ARS was visible in terms of feeble adverse effect in 2014 (the change in the head was −0.71 m) despite a deficit rainfall of 42%. Water chemistry displayed a mixed response to induced recharge; cation content was reduced in some samples whereas anions were added in about half of the tested samples. Hydrological properties, together with solute load and absorption-desorption capacity of percolating water, might have led to hydrochemical variability. The locations and appropriate designs enabled to harvest the rainwater in the most effective way leading to a net rise in depth of water levels by 3.24 m and 2.30 m between pre-monsoon of 2012–2013 and 2013–14 respectively. In the post-monsoon season, it was 1.68 m and −3.22 m for the same years (in the 2014 monsoon the area received 171 mm deficit rainfall). Despite poor rainfall in 2014, due to the completion of the ARS scheme, the bore wells yields stabilized at 4.07 lakh liters/day which was about 40% more than the pre-project year, May 2012.

Identification of suitable sites for rainwater harvesting using fuzzy AHP and fuzzy gamma operator: a case study

Rainwater harvesting (RWH) is a cost-effective support for small-scale farming and to handle seasonal water demand where water resource is in need of sustainable development. Researchers have developed and applied various criteria and methods to find out suitable sites and techniques for rainwater harvesting (RWH). The main objective of the work is to use fuzzy AHP (analytic hierarchy process) for weight assignment of various criteria involved in selecting suitable RWH sites for Kandi subdivision of Murshidabad district of India. Remote sensing and field data has been used to prepare thematic layers. Runoff, slope, soil, landuse and landcover, drainage density, lineament density, distance from roads, and distance from rivers have been assessed to select suitable sites for harvesting structures. Fuzzy gamma operator has been performed to integrate all criteria to get suitable sites for rainwater harvesting. Suitable sites for different harvesting structure were also identified. Landuse and landcover, river and canal map, and road map were integrated with the overlaid map to find out sites suitable for ponds and pans, percolation tank, check dam, and nala bunds. A total of 51 sites for harvesting ponds, 42 sites for check dams, 35 sites for nala bunds, and 20 sites for percolation tanks have been selected as suitable for harvesting sites. Overall, the study presented that the multi-criteria analysis using fuzzy logic offers an integrated assessment for rainwater harvesting structure and site selection.

Integrating GIS-Based MCDA Techniques and the SCS-CN Method for Identifying Potential Zones for Rainwater Harvesting in a Semi-Arid Area

An increasing scarcity of water, as well as rapid global climate change, requires more effective water conservation alternatives. One promising alternative is rainwater harvesting (RWH). Nevertheless, the evaluation of RWH potential together with the selection of appropriate sites for RWH structures is significantly difficult for the water managers. This study deals with this difficulty by identifying RWH potential areas and sites for RWH structures utilizing geospatial and multi-criteria decision analysis (MCDA) techniques. The conventional data and remote sensing data were employed to set up needed thematic layers using ArcGIS software. The soil conservation service curve number (SCS-CN) method was used to determine surface runoff, centered on which yearly runoff potential map was produced in the ArcGIS environment. Thematic layers such as drainage density, slope, land use/cover, and runoff were allotted appropriate weights to produced RWH potential areas and zones appropriate for RWH structures maps of the study location. Results analysis revealed that the outcomes of the spatial allocation of yearly surface runoff depth ranging from 83 to 295 mm. Moreover, RWH potential areas results showed that the study areas can be categorized into three RWH potential areas: (a) low suitability, (b) medium suitability, and (c) high suitability. Nearly 40% of the watershed zone falls within medium and high suitability RWH potential areas. It is deduced that the integrated MCDA and geospatial techniques provide a valuable and formidable resource for the strategizing of RWH within the study zones.

Subcategories Multiple Uses of Land Recognized by Land Use and Land Cover Classification System Using LISS-III and NRSC Enumerate Data: Case Study at Medchal Mandal, Hyderabad, India

Recognition of compound land possessions in Mandal level often produces complex in precisely classifying land use and land cover (LULC) characteristics. A renovated village, as an Infrastructure development ought to adequate information on several aspects of its performance in direct to compose verdict. LULC is merely a solitary such aspect, to increase significance to conquer problems of declining environmental quality, farmlands, degradation of wetlands, the slaughter of wildlife territory, and water bodies. LISS-III (Linear Integrated self-scanning) images and NRSC (National Remote Sensing Centre) catalog improve LULC classification accuracy at the Mandal level. The results of this investigation reveal that five categories are occupied a large area, followed by buildup land, cropland, forest, industries, and water bodies, (13%, 26%, 9%, 10%, and 13%). The highest contribution is cropland and the lowest contribution is forest land. The unobstructedly available a large amount of satellite data conceding for monitoring of existing land features on a large scale. Cluster-I division contains more dominated LULC categorised villages such as Ravalkole, Gundlapochampally, Medchal, and Sreerangavam villages. LULC classification data applied for investigation of environmental sustainability and problems. This research has been recommended and support for implement rainwater harvesting structures for recharge of groundwater or collection of water in this Medchal Mandal and develop mobile education, higher education institutes, and small-scale industries in villages.

Effects of a Trench as a Moisture Harvesting Structure on the Biomass Production and Growth of Trees Planted to Restore Degraded Land, Southern Ethiopia

Knowledge about the biomass productivity of trees planted in a rainwater harvesting structure, i.e., a trench (T), relative to a normal pit (P) on degraded land is scarce. The objective of this research paper is to compare the effect of T with P on the growth and biomass production of the Acacia saligna and Casuarina equisetifolia which were planted on degraded land. All the individual stems of both species in the T and P, their diameters at breast height (DBH) and heights in 2016 and 2020 were measured. Species-specific allometric equations were used to quantify the biomass production of the studied species. The t-tests were used for data analysis; both A. saligna and C. equisetifolia individuals planted in the T had higher DBH and height increment as compared with A. saligna and C. equisetifolia that were planted and grown in a P. The results also revealed significant differences on the mean DBH and height of A. saligna and C. equisetifolia planted in a T and P (p < 0.05). Between 2016 and 2020, the total biomass (TB) of A. saligna planted in a T and in a P increased significantly (p < 0.05) on average by 25.5 kg/tree and 7.7 kg/tree, respectively (p < 0.05). Similarly, the mean TB values of the C. equisetifolia planted in a T and a P between 2016 and 2020 increased significantly (p < 0.05) by 28.9 kg/tree and 13.1 kg/tree, respectively. Finally, establishing trenches to restore degraded lands was shown to facilitate growth and biomass production of planted species on degraded land.

Building climate resilience in degraded agricultural landscapes through water management: A case study of Bundelkhand region, Central India

Rainfall variability and water scarcity continue to hamper the food and income security of smallholder farming systems in poverty-affected regions. Innovations in soil and water management, especially in the drylands, are critical for meeting food security and water productivity targets of Agenda 2030. This study analyzes how rainfed agriculture can be intensified with marginal impact on the landscape water balance. The impact of rainwater harvesting structures on landscape hydrology and associated agricultural services was analyzed in the semi-arid Jhansi district of Bundelkhand region in central India. The Parasai-Sindh pilot watershed was subjected to a 5-year (2012–2016) monitoring of rainfed system improvements in water availability and crop intensification due to surface water storage (haveli system), check dams, and field infiltration structures. Hydrological processes were monitored intensively to analyze the landscape’s water balance components. Rainwater harvesting (RWH) structures altered the landscape’s hydrology, limiting average surface runoff from 250 mm/year to 150 mm/year over the study period. Groundwater levels increased by 2–5 m (m), alleviating water scarcity issues of the communities in recurring dry years. Nearly 20% of fallow lands were brought under cultivation. Crop yields increased by 10–70% and average household income increased from US$ 960/year to US$ 2700/year compared to that in the non-intervention landscape. The combined soil–water–vegetation efforts strengthened water resilience and environmental systems in agricultural landscape.

Quantification of recharge from the rainwater harvesting structures—a case study in hard rock area of Odisha (India)

Rainwater harvesting structures have been proved as one of the best options to conserve runoff in hard rock areas in India. Volume of rainwater conserved in a structure depends on the design dimension of the structures, soil type, climate, and land topography. These structures also act as groundwater recharge means if constructed at an appropriate location. Direct quantification of amount of water recharged from the structures in field condition is not feasible, but there are few indirect methods to quantify important water budget parameters. In this paper, water balance approach was used to estimate all inflow to the structure and outflow from the rainwater harvesting structures located in Bargharianala microwatershed in Nayagarh district of Odisha (India). Rainfall and runoff to the structures were inflow components, and evaporation, seepage/percolation losses, and extraction for irrigation from the structures were the outflow components. Monthly water level change was measured from the water harvesting structures and the changes in water level were used to determine the effect of recharge/subsurface flow. Seepage and percolation rate was estimated based on the piezometric observations. Result showed that annually recharge from structure with 0.38 ha m capacity was only 0.03 m during initial construction of the structure which further increased to 0.25 m after subsequent years. For 0.5 to 0.75 ha m structure, the recharge amount varied from 0.318 to 0.18 m with average of 0.25 m. In case of structure of 0.2 ha m capacity, with a recharge well within the structure, recharge was increased up to 0.86 m. The impact of these structures was observed up to 300 m areal extents covering the area of influence of 15 ha command area in hard rock areas of Odisha. The water table depth in dug wells located within the command area raises up to 1 m during pre-monsoon season.

Planning rainwater conservation measures using geospatial and multi-criteria decision making tools.

The assessment of rainwater-harvesting demand (RWHD) map and the identification of appropriate priority-based locations for rainwater-harvesting (RWH) and groundwater recharge structures are very crucial for the water managers, particularly in irrigation commands. This study addresses this challenge by using multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) and geospatial techniques to present a novel and robust approach for generating RWHD map and identifying sites/zones for distinct RWH and groundwater recharge on a priority basis. Primary thematic layers such as existing irrigation water supply, irrigation demand, and groundwater potential were considered in this study for delineating RWHD zones. Further, sites suitable for RWH and groundwater recharge were identified using soil, slope, drainage network, and lineament thematic layers of the study area and they were prioritized. Four zones of rainwater demand were identified for the prioritization of RWH and groundwater structures: (a) "low" rainwater-harvesting demand zone (covering 3% of the total study area), (b) "moderate" rainwater-harvesting demand zone (40%), (c) "high" rainwater-harvesting demand zone (42%), and (d) "very high" rainwater-harvesting demand zone (15%). Moreover, 46 sites for check dams and 145 suitable sites for percolation tanks were identified, together with 253ha area for groundwater recharge based on the priority of rainwater-harvesting demand. Integration of geospatial and MCDM techniques in conjunction with suitable thematic layers provides a helpful and realistic tool for large-scale planning and management of rainwater conservation measures.

RS- and GIS-based modeling for optimum site selection in rain water harvesting system: an SCS-CN approach

In this study, an integrated approach has been adopted for optimum selection of locations for rain water harvesting (RWH) in Kohat district of Pakistan. Various thematic layers including runoff depth, land cover/land use, slope and drainage density have been incorporated as input to the analysis. Other biophysical criteria such as geological setup, soil texture and drainage streams characteristics were also taken into account. Drainage density and slope were derived from digital elevation model, and map of land use/land cover was prepared using supervised classification of multi-spectral Sentinel-2 images of the area. Aforementioned thematic layers are assigned respective weights of their importance and combined in GIS environment to form a RWH potential map of the region. The generated suitability map is classified into three potential zones: high, moderate and low suitability zones consisting of area 638 km2 (21%), 1859 km2 (62%) and 519 km2 (17%), respectively. The suitability map has been used to mark accumulation points on the down streams as potential spots of water storage. In addition, site suitability of artificial structures for RWH consisting of farm ponds, check dams and percolation tanks has also been assessed, showing 3.2%, 3% and 4.5% of the total area as a fit for each of the structure, respectively. The derived suitability will aid policy makers to easily determine potential sites for RWH structures to store water and tackle acute paucity of water in the area.

Socio-Economic and Environmental Impacts Assessment of Using Different Rainwater Harvesting Techniques in Sarida Catchment, West Bank, Palestine

A statistically representative questionnaire targeted people using rainwater harvesting (RWH) techniques in rural communities of Sarida catchment,West Bank, Palestine was distributed and analyzed. The main objective of this study is to assess the social, economic, and environmental impacts of adopting RWH techniques (e.g. cisterns, concrete and clay ponds, Wadi ponds, earth dams, and stone terraces) in different uses to increase water availability. The results showed a simple sharing of the female component among beneficiaries, while concrete ponds and cisterns were the most used techniques. Actually, social impacts were noticeable by sharing the same RWH structure and reflected to responsibility skills and role exchange increases. On the other hand, RWH techniques showed a significant economic impact for end users represented by enhancing domestic, agricultural,and recreational activities leading to good profit increase. In addition to food security as output, the most important environmental impact was water wasting prevention, which in turn could be linked to sustainable water management and considered as universal challenge for future generations.

Locating Site Selection for Rainwater Harvesting Structure using Remote Sensing and GIS

Rainfall is a key source to diminish the problem of water scarcity in the arid and semi-arid regions. Rainwater harvesting is considered an imperious tool for rainwater conservation. Locating the appropriate location for rainwater harvesting structure plays an important role to increase water availability and improve water resources planning. The main goal of this paper is to recognize the proper location for a rainwater harvesting structure using a suitability model generated with ModelBuilder in ArcGIS. Six thematic layers i.e. soil structure, slope, drainage density, vegetation cover, distance to the roads, and runoff depth, are considered to find the proper site for rainwater harvesting structure. The result shows that 12% represents the suitable zone of the total study area, 42% represents the medium suitable area, and 46% represents not suitable areas to implement rainwater harvesting structure. The application of this scheme should maintain any policy adoption for site selection for rainwater harvesting.

Siting of Rainwater Harvesting Potential Sites in Arid or Semi-arid Watersheds Using GIS-based Techniques

Rainwater harvesting (RWH) has emerged as one of the efficient strategies to augment surface and groundwater sources to meet water resource demands. The aim of this study is to present a methodology for siting RWH areas and selecting appropriate RWH structures in a watershed using Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and Remote Sensing (RS) based multi-criteria analysis. Derived thematic layers such as drainage density, slope, road network, runoff potential, distance to streams, and distance to built-up areas were used to identify suitable areas for RWH. The Weighted Linear Combination (WLC) technique was used in combination with the Boolean approach in a GIS environment. Normalized weights assigned to thematic layers and features were tested for consistency using the consistency ratio in Analytical Hierarchy Process. The study area can be divided into three categories of suitability, i.e.: (i) Most suitable with 26% coverage (167 km2); (ii) moderately suitable with 30% coverage; and (iii) least suitable with 12.6% coverage (80 km2) of the study area. Suitable RWH and artificial recharge structures were identified based on identified zones. It was found that 11 check dams could be implemented in the study area and 3 percolation tanks along streams and on the ground. This cost-effective and low data-intensive methodology presented can be replicated by relevant stakeholders in arid regions to adopt RWH as an effective strategy to address growing water shortages.

Water Storage Assessment of Khapri Watershed through Geospatial Techniques

Khapri watershed is mountainous region having average 2255 mm rainfall every year. In the last few months of hydrological year i.e. April & May, there is an acute shortage of drinking water. To overcome this short fall, it is necessary to manage natural watersheds available in the region. water harvesting is a system that collects rainwater from where it falls around its periphery rather than allowing it to go as runoff. The strategy of “Think Globally, Act Locally” should be used in this area for management of water. Local water that is rainwater stored using Rainwater Harvesting Structure and Conservation used optimally before it goes in drain or river.The subsurface reservoirs are very attractive and technically feasible alternatives for storing surplus monsoon runoff. But in the study region, this is not possible as there is a basalt rock. Recharging is not advisable as water table in post monsoon just touches ground level. So, Rainwater harvesting structures for direct use of water may be the possibly best solution.For community requirement rainwater may be stored in checkdams or depressed area naturally available. Construction of small barriers across small streams to check and store the running water also can be considered as water harvesting structure. This may fulfil the drinking water requirement of their cattles. Check dams in the watershed has been ascertain using Geospatial techniques and few of them verified by visiting the sites. In site visit it is found that open wells near the stream has water level above stream water level. At few places farming is done in check dam reservoir or in stream itself.

Design of Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting Structure in a University Campus

Rain water harvesting (RWH) is an excellent technique of water conservation for future needs and also to recharge groundwater. Due to the alarming population burden, climate change, uneven distribution of rainfall and abrupt variation of meteorological parameters, the surface and ground water resources are continuously depleting in India. Hence adoption of different water conservation techniques at individual, institute and community level has become imperative to cater to the needs. This study was aimed at designing a rooftop rainwater harvesting structure for the Amity University Mumbai, located in Maharashtra state of India. Out of the possible catchment areas, the main building was selected as the required catchment area for rainwater harvesting considering the water demand in university campus and the supply. Further, different parts of the RWH system were designed based on standard guidelines It was observed from the analysis that implementation of RWH system in Amity University Mumbai campus can resolve the water scarcity problems during non-monsoon season by storing a huge quantity of 6109.42 m3 in a year in the university campus. This initiative can increase the water supply for construction work, gardening and also will help in artificial recharge of ground water thus enriching both the surface and the ground water resources.

Selection of Rainwater Harvesting Sites by Using Remote Sensing and GIS Techniques: A Case Study of Dawa Sub Basin Southern Ethiopia

Water is one of the vital requirements for life, economic and social development. Water scarcity affects the environmental, economic and developmental activities of an area. The rainfall in the sub-basins is often very local, erratic, unreliable and unevenly distributed over the whole area of Dawa sub-basin. The pastoral and agro-pastoral communities are usually vulnerable to drought. The present study was an attempt to describe the state of Rain Water Harvesting (RWH) techniques and the contribution of Remote Sensing and GIS technologies for this RWH in the Dawa Sub basin. The study was conducted using physiographic factors of Dawa sub basin. Landsat image with spatial resolution 30m were used to identify LU/LC types. The thematic layers used were land use/land cover, slope, soil, drainage and runoff from derived from Landsat and collateral data. The image processing software Erdas IMAGINE and GIS software were used to process the image and to establish a geo information system by comprising digital data set of satellite image, topography, soil, metrology, drainage density and metrology. This data was used to study RWH was used to study the watershed network in the Dawa sub basin and to identify areas generally suitable for water harvesting in order to determine water harvesting techniques for those sites. Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) was used to calculate weighting and the analysis result indicates that the sub-basin supports promising opportunity for the establishment and development of RWH structures. From the total area of 17,402.7 km², The GIS evaluation predicts that 3,092.342 km² (22.853%) is extremely suitable, 4,524.221 km² (33.435%) is very suitable, 2,968.685 km² (21.939%) is suitable, 1,988.986 km² (14.7%) is less Suitable and 957.18 km² (7.07%) is not suitable for RWH.

Integration of dem derived depression and scs based runoff datasets for delineation of potential rainwater harvesting sites in Sita and Swarna basins, Karnataka

A large amount of rainwater is lost due to surface runoff that reaches the sea through streams and rivers. Rainwater Harvesting (RWH) is an encouraging approach to store available surface water and improve groundwater to overcome the water dearth problems. The present study utilizes a technically robust Geographic Information System (GIS) based methodology for evaluating and identifying the suitable RWH sites depending on the depth and volume of depressions derived from ASTER-DEM. The procedure primarily developed for the humid and tropical climatic regions has been adopted for the Sita and Swarna River basins of Southern Coastal Karnataka in the present study. The selection of a suitable site for RWH is based on different key determinants such as land use/land cover, hydrology, soil, and topography as well as the surface runoff derived using the ArcCN-Runoff tool. Initially, ninety four depression parcels have been extracted in Sita River and Swarna River basins from the DEM data using algebraic operations. Subsequently, key determinants have been analyzed in GIS domain as per the criteria mentioned in the Integrated Mission for Sustainable Development (IMSD) guidelines. As per the GIS analysis, total thirty depression parcels have been considered in the study, out of which eight parcels are classified as highly suitable; twelve as moderately suitable, and the remaining ten as not suitable RWH sites. If the rainwater is reaped and conserved properly using the suggested RWH sites as per the IMSD guidelines, the study area can serve 341.4 million cubic meters of additional water for domestic, irrigation and small scale industrial sectors. The delineated RWH sites are subjected to ground verification at 30% sample sites using Arc Pad Mobile GIS unit. The resulted accuracy is found to be 89%. The study emphasizes the benefits of GIS techniques over the traditional survey methods for sustainable water conservation. However, it is recommended to employ cadastral level data which enables easy acquisition of land required for constructing the RWH structures at farm and private lands.

Developing quantifiable approaches for delineating suitable options for irrigating fallow areas during dry season-a case study from Eastern India.

Harvesting surface runoff during monsoon season for further utilization in crop production during the post-monsoon season is now becoming an effective solution to mitigate water scarcity problems. In this study, multi-criteria analysis-analytic hierarchy process (MCA-AHP)-based approach was envisaged for rainwater harvesting (RWH) zoning for a case study area, i.e., two districts of Odisha state situated in Eastern India. In spite of having a large irrigation network in the study area, major portion of these two densely populated and agriculture dominated districts remains fallow during dry seasons. Suitable locations for RWH structures such as farm pond, check dam, and percolation tanks were identified through Boolean conditions. RWH potential map was generated using different thematic layers namely land use/land cover (LU/LC), geomorphology, slope, stream density, soil type, and surface runoff. AHP-based MCA technique was used to integrate these thematic layers by assigning weights to the thematic layers and ranks to the individual theme features on 1-9 AHP Saaty's scale, considering their relative importance on RWH potential of the study area. The Natural Resources Conservation Service-Curve Number method was used to derive surface runoff using Climate Hazards Group Infra-Red Precipitation with Station rainfall data, satellite-derived LU/LC and FAO soil maps. In comparison to single cropped areas in 48% of the total study area, only 4% area was under double and triple cropped areas during 2016-2017. Moderate runoff was observed in > 50% of the study area dominated by agricultural landscape. Nearly 40%, 25.11%, and 32.45% of the study area indicated very high, high, and moderate RWH potentials, respectively. Particularly, very high RWH potential is observed in the eastern and central portion of the study area. The use of appropriate RWH structures in less irrigated areas will facilitate multiple cropping and will substitute the use of sub-surface water harvesting practices. In these two districts, 73 check dams and 153 percolation tanks are prescribed along the 2nd- and 3rd-order streams. In coarser textured soil, nearly 306km2 and 608km2 areas are identified as moderate and highly suitable zones for percolation tank construction on ground, while in fine soil, around 786km2 area is identified as suitable for farm pond construction. Majority of the suitable zones for percolation tanks is found in Jajpur district, while suitability for adoption of farm pond and check dam is more in Bhadrak district. It is expected that implementation of the prescribed RWH structures can mitigate the threats of flood, drought, soil erosion, and enhance the soil moisture and cropping intensity significantly. The use of GIS platform with the spatial layers and the methodology adopted can be updated and replicated in larger regions in a shorter time. The spatially explicit maps are offering insights to different themes, providing useful information to the water resource managers, and may improve the decision-making process.

Hapa irrigation for promoting sustainable agricultural intensification: experience from Bankura district of India

This research examines the implications of rainwater harvesting structure hapa in the Bankura district of West Bengal, India. The paper finds that proper management and harvesting of surface and subsurface runoffs in hapas can facilitate groundwater recharge and increase both net irrigated area and moisture in soil leading to higher cropping intensity and yield in dryland areas. However, dissected plateau and residual hillocks can reduce irrigation efficiency of hapas. Although sprinkler or drip irrigation along with cultivation of drought and lateritic resilient, low moisture crop can help in coping up with geophysical and climatic vulnerability, appropriate crop diversification is also necessary. There is also a need for regular maintenance and desiltation of hapas. The water user groups should play an active role for this, especially for hapas in common land. Further, scientific guidance is necessary for designing appropriate structure of hapas in different geo-physical conditions.

Effects of integrated farming system and rainwater harvesting on livelihood improvement in North-Eastern region of India compared to traditional shifting cultivation: evidence from an action research

Shifting cultivation is the primary source of livelihood for farmers in the hilly tracts of North East India. The jhumias’ (farmers involved in shifting cultivation) livelihoods are at stake due to low productivity and low profit due to detrimental effects of soil erosion, loss of soil nutrients and biodiversity. An action research was planned and executed in Wokha, Nagaland for agricultural intensification and diversification through integrated farming system (IFS) models, rainwater harvesting (RWH) structures and secondary agricultural options. Purposively the research work was carried out in three distinct altitudes at Yanthamo (26°3.753′N, 94°18.195′E, 973 m), Longsa (26°04.029′N, 94°14.936′E, 1174 m) and Riphyim (26°12.282′N, 94°15.748′E, 563 m). The overall impacts of the interventions were quantified in terms of crop productivity, farm-based livelihood diversity, improvement in soil health and jhumias’ livelihood conditions. The results were quite encouraging as it clearly indicated yield enhancement in IFS for cereals (29%), oilseeds (40.7%), pulses (15%), fruits (9.9%), vegetables (298%) and spices (53.6%). On-farm fodder cultivation supplemented respectively 39.3% and 28.6% feed requirements for piggery and poultry avenues. The RWH and IFS increased average cropping intensity from 100 to 168%. Introduction of vermicompost technology in IFS made it possible to recycle about 3.17 t of biomass to produce about 1.24 t mature compost annually. Inclusion of livestock components in model contributed to as high as 56.59% enhancement of net income. Integration of different components in IFS increased employment opportunities also up to 506 man-days/ha/year over the traditional system (72 man-days/ha/year). It can be concluded that water harvesting and IFS could be propagated as a sustainable and economically viable model for livelihood improvement of jhumias.