Racial Self-identification Research Articles

Self-identified Race and Ethnicity and How this is Perceived: Associations with the Physical and Mental Health of Incarcerated Individuals.

The singular focus on self-identified race and ethnicity in health disparities research may not fully convey the individual and structural components of experiencing race in society, or in a racialized context such as prison. Processes of racialization create boundaries between incarcerated individuals and regulate their daily interactions and access to resources, with possible effects on well-being. However, the relationship between perceived race and health has not been examined within the imprisoned population. We used data from the 2016 Survey of Prison Inmates (n = 23,010) to assess how self-identified race, perceived race, and the discordance between racial self-identification and perception were associated with the physical (number of chronic conditions) and mental health (psychological distress) of American Indian and Alaska Native, Asian, Black, Latino, White, and multiracial incarcerated individuals. Reported perception as Latino was associated with better mental and physical health relative to perception as White. Perceived Latino identity was more strongly associated with physical and mental health than a Latino self-identity. Reported perception as Black was associated with less psychological distress than perception as White, but this relationship dissipated after accounting for self-identified race. In contrast, perceived and self-identified multiracial incarcerated individuals reported worse health than their White counterparts. Having a discordant (vs. concordant) racial identity was associated with worse physical and mental health among imprisoned persons regardless of race. The use of a single, unidimensional measure of race and ethnicity in health disparities research does not fully reveal racialization's influence on health, specifically for those experiencing incarceration.

Evidence from an Applied Health Research Question: Health Equity Profiles of Community Health Centre (CHC) and non-CHC clients

Objective/ApproachThe Black Health Equity Working Group's Applied Health Research Question aimed to compare cancer screening rates and surgical wait times between community health centre (CHC) clients based on race-related data and non-CHC clients. CHC client data was categorized by self-identified racial groups, with Black self-identification compared to non-Black racialized, White, and missing racial self-identification, and non-CHC clients. Health card numbers were encrypted to link individuals to the Primary Care Population dataset for breast, cervical, and colorectal cancer screening rates. Surgical wait time indicators, such as the number of patients undergoing surgery and average wait times for initial consultation and completed surgeries, were derived from the Wait Time Information System. Assessments were conducted semi-annually from fiscal year 2018 to 2021. ResultsFollowing the onset of COVID-19, CHC clients self-identifying as Black experienced the most significant decrease (6.8%) in colorectal screenings compared to other groups. Mammogram screenings remained consistently higher for CHC clients self-identifying as Black pre- and post-pandemic. Average cervical cancer screening rates were approximately 8% higher among CHC clients compared to non-CHC clients, irrespective of racial self-identification. However, due to small sample sizes and missing data among self-identified racial groups, trends in surgical wait times for both CHC and non-CHC clients were unstable. Conclusion/ImplicationsTailored interventions targeting Black CHC clients can enhance cancer screening rates, particularly colorectal screenings. The analysis of CHC data offers valuable insights into race-based disparities in health outcomes. Improved data completeness is essential for accurately assessing health outcome variations among different racial groups.

Multiracials' affective, behavioral and identity-specific responses to identity denial

Multiracial individuals commonly experience instances of identity denial, in which their racial identities are questioned, invalidated and/or rejected by others. The present research examined majority-minority Multiracials' forecasted and actual responses to identity denial experiences, specifically investigating whether the race of the denied identity (White vs racial minority) and race of the identity denial perpetrator (White vs racial minority) differentially impact the experience of identity denial. In Study 1, participants (N = 247) who imagined having their racial minority (vs White) identity denied forecasted stronger negative affective responses and likelihood of identity reassertion, irrespective of the racial identity of the denial perpetrator. Study 2 found participants (N = 85) whose racial minority identity was experimentally denied reported stronger active negative affect (e.g., anger) and were more likely to reassert their identity. Additionally, Study 2 examined three racial identity-specific processes – self-presentation, self-perception and self-identification – impacted by identity denial experiences. Multiracials whose racial minority identity was denied by a White perpetrator perceived their own racial identity, presented their racial identity to others and shifted their racial self-identification in alignment with their racially minoritized identity. The opposite pattern occurred among Multiracial individuals whose racial minority identity was denied by a racial minority perpetrator. The findings imply the specific components of an identity denial experience (race of denied identity and race of denial perpetrator) are important for predicting how Multiracials experience and respond to instances of identity denial.

What Huntington's Disease Patients Say About Their Illness: An Online Direct-to-Participant Pilot Study.

Direct-to-participant online reporting facilitates the conduct of clinical research by increasing access and clinically meaningful patient engagement. We assessed feasibility of online data collection from adults with diagnosed Huntington's disease (HD) who directly reported their problems and impact in their own words. Data were collected online from consenting United States residents who self-identified as 1) having been diagnosed with Huntington's disease, 2) able to ambulate independently, and 3) self-sufficient for most daily needs. Data for this pilot study were collected using the Huntington Study Group myHDstory online research platform. The Huntington Disease Patient Report of Problems (HD-PROP), an open-ended questionnaire, was used to capture verbatim bothersome problems and functional impact. Natural language processing, human-in-the-loop curation of verbatim reports involving clinical and experience experts, and machine learning classified verbatim-reports into clinically meaningful symptoms. All 8 questionnaires in the online pilot study were completed by 345 participants who were 60.9% men, 34.5±9.9 (mean±SD) years old, and 9.5±8.4 years since HD diagnosis. Racial self-identification was 46.4% Caucasian, 28.7% African American, 15.4% American Indian/Alaska Native, and 9.5% other. Accuracy of verbatim classification was 99%. Non-motor problems were the most frequently reported symptoms; depression and cognitive impairment were the most common. Online research participation was feasible for a diverse cohort of adults who self-reported an HD diagnosis and predominantly non-motor symptoms related to mood and cognition. Online research tools can help inform what bothers HD patients, identify clinically meaningful outcomes, and facilitate participation by diverse and under-represented populations.

Predictors of Corporal Punishment during the COVID-19 Pandemic.

Although current policies discourage the use of corporal punishment (CP), its use is still widespread in the US. The objective of this study was to assess the proportion of parents who used CP during the pandemic and identify related risk and protective factors. We analyzed results of a nationwide cross-sectional internet panel survey of 9000 US caregivers who responded in three waves from November 2020 to July 2021. One in six respondents reported having spanked their child in the past week. Spanking was associated with intimate partner violence and the use of multiple discipline strategies and not significantly associated with region or racial self-identification. Parents who spanked sought out more kinds of support, suggesting an opportunity to reduce spanking through more effective parenting resources. Additionally, these results suggest that parents who report using CP may be at risk for concurrent domestic violence.

Abstract 04: Intersectional Inequities in Obesity Among Multiracial Adults by Urbanicity: A Random Effects MAIHDA Analysis

Based on 2020 Census Bureau data, the percentage of people who reported multiple races changed more than all of the race alone groups, increasing from 2.9% of the population (9 million people) in 2010 to 10.2% of the population (33.8 million) in 2020. Yet, the majority of national health surveys aggregate all individuals who identify with multiple races into one heterogeneous group. We hypothesize this aggregation masks important differences in terms of health. Beyond the aggregation, there are multiple dimensions of race/ethnicity including racial self-identification (the race(s) one identifies with), racial category (the census category one selects), Hispanic ethnicity, and others that do not ideally overlap among multiracial adults. For multiracial adults, it is unknown how these multiple contexts of race and ethnicity intersect with one another. We evaluated the intersection of racial self-identification, racial category, and Hispanic ethnicity on body mass index (BMI) among multiracial adults as a second-level social identity strata. We then examined if these intersectional inequities in BMI were differently patterned in urban, suburban, and rural areas. We used multilevel analysis of individual heterogeneity and discriminatory accuracy (MAIHDA) among multiracial adults in the US (n=42,632) with a three-year (2010-2012) pooled sample of the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS). We observed intersectional effects on BMI inequities. Most of the effects of social identity on BMI were explained by the combination of racial self-identification, racial category, and Hispanic ethnicity among multiracial adults (85.3%). Those living in a rural area had considerably higher BMIs than those living in an urban or suburban area. This is especially true for individuals with racial self-identification of White-Black, White-Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander (NHPI), Black-American Indian/Alaska Native (AIAN), Asian-NHPI, and White-Black-AIAN and those who chose the racial category of NHPI. For example, individuals who self-identified as White-Black had an average BMI 4.5 kg/m 2 (p<0.01) higher in rural areas compared to White-Blacks living in urban areas. The magnitude of this BMI gap across urban-rural environments varied considerably across social identity strata ranging from 35.3 kg/m 2 among Non-Hispanic White-Black-AIAN with no preference for one race to 22.5 kg/m 2 among Non-Hispanic White-Asian with no preference for one race. This study highlights aspects of the social construction of race and patterning across the urban-rural divide in evaluation of BMI/obesity. This study brings to light inequities within people who identify as multiracial and highlights sub-populations to focus future policy and intervention research on.

Seeing Race Like a State: Higher Education Affirmative Action Verification Commissions in Brazil

ABSTRACTA growing body of literature has focused on how different states continuously “make race” by legitimizing certain racial categories while invisibilizing others. Much less has been written on the actual processes of transforming race into a bureaucratic category when implementing antiracist public policies. This article focuses on the recent use of verification commissions to validate the racial self-identification of potential beneficiaries of racial quotas at federal higher education institutions in Brazil. We argue that through their choices, particularly through their definition of what race is, of who can see race, and of how to see race, these commissions are transforming not only understandings about affirmative action’s aims but also understandings of race. The study focuses on three potential consequences of commission practices for Brazilian racial boundaries: the disciplining of racial identifications, the decontextualization of race, and the individualization of racial injustice.

The harms of racial miscategorization: Comparing multiracial individuals' well-being in the continental U.S. versus Hawai'i.

The current work explores the effects of racial miscategorization (incongruence between other people's racial categorization of an individual and that individual's racial self-identification) and subjective well-being of multiracial individuals in Hawai'i versus California. We set out to examine how multiracial individuals experience racial miscategorization in more or less ethnically diverse environments and how this experience shapes the extent to which they feel a sense of belonging and inclusion. The study consisted of interviews with 55 multiracial undergraduate and graduate students conducted in Hawai'i (20 self-identified women and 9 self-identified men, with ages ranging from 18 to 47 years; M = 22.93, SD = 6.40) and California (16 self-identified women, 9 self-identified men, and 1 self-identified gender nonbinary person, with ages ranging from 18 to 31 years; M = 20.96, SD = 2.76). Thematic analysis identified two central themes relevant to subjective well-being: (a) racial miscategorization and its consequences and (b) contextual differences in the experiences of miscategorization. Results suggest that racial miscategorization is a pervasive experience among multiracial people and is associated with negative psychological well-being. We also found that environments with greater representation of multiracial individuals, such as Hawai'i, are associated with less racial miscategorization, more inclusion, and better psychological well-being among multiracial individuals. Racial miscategorization is a prominent and aversive experience among multiracial individuals, but multiracial environments can serve as a psychological buffer. Racial miscategorization has important theoretical and practical implications for racial and ethnic identity research, which we discuss. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Roots in Fiction and Philology: George Eliot, Ernest Renan, and Willed Ethnonationalism

Abstract: Scholarship on George Eliot’s 1860s Condition-of-England novel Felix Holt has been divided on whether it signals the racist nativism of its decade or advocates for inclusive, willed national belonging. This paper proposes that it accomplishes both, promoting what I call “willed ethnonationalism.” A counterintuitive phrase, willed ethnonationalism captures how Eliot’s novel both defines the nation-form against race belonging and encourages modern nationals to perform racial self-identification. I argue that this stance emerged from Eliot’s engagement with Ernest Renan’s philological career. Recalling how theories of racial-linguistic inheritance influenced a zeitgeist of thinking around constructed nations (epitomized by Renan’s 1882 essay on nationalism), I show how mythic ideas about racial roots informed the ostensibly rational form of the nation-state as expressed in late nineteenth-century fiction and essayistic prose.

American Indian Casinos and Native American Self-Identification

Abstract This paper links Native American racial self-identification with the rise in tribal gaming across the United States. We find that state policy changes allowing tribes to open casinos are associated with an increase in the probability that individuals with American Indian ancestors will self-identify as Native American and a decrease in the probability that individuals with no American Indian ancestry will self-identify as Native American. Moreover, we find that the magnitudes of the impacts are increasing in the strength of American Indian ancestral ties. Similar results hold when causal identification comes from American Indian casino openings across states over time and suggestive evidence shows stronger impacts if casinos are likely to pay per capita dividend payments to their members. These results are consistent with a conceptual framework in which we tie racial identification to economic motivations as well as social stigma associated with affiliating with a racial group for those without documented ancestral ties. Our results underscore the importance of economic incentives and social factors underlying the individual choice of racial identity.

Social identity and racial disparities in science literacy.

Research on African-Americans' relationship with science, while relatively sparse, in general suggests higher levels of alienation than among their White counterparts, whether in the form of less positive attitudes to science, or lower scientific literacy. In this article, we leverage social identity theory to examine the role of racial social identity and ingroup evaluation as putative mechanisms that produce these disparities. We use data from the General Social Survey, pooled over three waves, as the basis for our investigation. The results of the analysis indicate that, when controlling for other covariates, there is no statistically significant difference in the effect of racial self-identification on science knowledge among African-Americans and Whites. However, we provide evidence that the effect of favourable ingroup evaluation on science knowledge differs in these two groups, being more positive for African-Americans compared to Whites.

Variability in Pattern of Mutational Signatures in Multiple Myeloma As a Function of Racial Origin

Introduction: Current data suggests Black/African Americans (AA) have an increased risk of developing multiple myeloma (MM), especially in comparison to White/European Americans (EA). However, the underlying causes remain unclear. Genetic definition of the spectrum of acquired mutations and the signatures they contain could help us to understand the mechanism underlying this excess risk. Currently, only limited information is available on the mutational spectra within AAs and the majority of data that has been generated is based on the societal construct of self-identified race/ethnicity alone. To address this deficiency and the potential associated bias, it is critical to examine greater numbers of whole genome sequencing (WGS) data from AAs. Data from a pilot study indicate a prolonged and more intense exposure to the germinal center (GC) reaction in the early evolutionary phases of MM within AAs, suggesting that it is essential to examine sequencing data from early disease stage i.e. smoldering MM (SMM) to better understand genetic predisposition in AAs. Methods: To address the mutational basis of MM and how it varies based on racial origin we carried out two large studies, Polyethnic-1000 and the Smoldering Myeloma Registration Trial (SMRT) study. Furthermore, we examined a cross-sectional series of WGS and whole exome sequencing (WES) data derived from cases with SMM and MM already sequenced to characterize the pattern of mutations and the signatures in both the coding and non-coding regions of the genome. Importantly, to accurately infer racial ancestry, we built an admixture workflow into our sequencing analysis pipeline, enabling us to address the variability in origin from within the MM cases ranging from regions of Europe to subsets of cases with African, North/South American, and Asian origin directly. We showed its use in previous work describing the heterogenous genetic admixture in MM cases that self-identified Hispanic and Latino. Our pipeline uses a suite of well-supported bioinformatic tools for preprocessing sequencing data according to best practices, cataloguing germline variants across a large series of patients, generating ancestry admixture estimations per patient, determining telomere length and composition, and identifying the spectrum of somatic events including single nucleotide variants, small insertions/deletions, copy number variants, and structural variants using consensus calling. All source code and reference data is publicly available via a GitHub repository (https://github.com/pblaney/mgp1000). Results: We generated new WGS data from 65 MM cases (EA n=15, AA n=50), and 44 SMM cases (EA n=36, AA n=18) as part of the Polyethnic 1000 and SMRT study. We also systematically reanalyzed 473 cases with deep (>30x) WGS data and all cases in the CoMMpass study low-depth (5-12x) WGS (n=943). Estimating ancestral composition directly from the genetic data of the CoMMpass study, we identified discrepancies between the self-reported race and the genetically determined admixture composition. Approximately 75% of individuals identified as 'White' but 7% of these cases had a genetic composition that included greater than 10% contribution from African, North/South American, or Asian ancestry. More interesting, 18% identified as 'Black/African American' but 50% of these cases had greater than 10% contribution from European, North/South American, or Asian ancestry. These results demonstrate the underlying genetic heterogeneity in a population that is currently clinically classified as the homogenous and thus lead to skewed evaluations of race and outcome in MM. We will compare the mutational spectra within these groups with different origins to address the risk of developing MM as well as addressing the time of origin of MM within the different populations. Conclusion: We show that there is significant variability of admixture from Europe, North/South America, and Africa within patients who self-identify as White, Black/African American, or Hispanic/Latino in clinical datasets from the U.S. This reinforces the need for complementary genetic admixture with racial self-identification when investigating the links between racial ancestry and outcomes in MM. Figure: Admixture composition of CoMMpass study shows significant contribution of African, North/South American, and East/South Asian origins in predominant European ancestral background. Figure 1View largeDownload PPTFigure 1View largeDownload PPT Close modal

COVID-19 Vaccine Coverage and Sociodemographic, Behavioural and Housing Factors Associated with Vaccination among People Experiencing Homelessness in Toronto, Canada: A Cross-Sectional Study.

People experiencing homelessness were prioritized for COVID-19 vaccination in Toronto, Canada, due to the high risk of infection and associated complications relative to the general population. We aimed to ascertain COVID-19 vaccine coverage in this population and explore factors associated with the receipt of at least one dose. We collected survey and blood sample data from individuals ages 16+ recruited by random selection at 62 shelters, hotels and encampment sites between 16 June 2021 and 9 September 2021. We report vaccine coverage by dose number and explored sociodemographic, behavioral, health and housing factors associated with vaccination using multivariable modified Poisson regression. In total, 80.4% (95% CI 77.3–83.1%) received at least one vaccine dose, and 63.6% (CI 60.0–67.0%) received two or more doses. Vaccination was positively associated with age (every 10 years adjusted rate ratio (aRR) 1.05 [95% CI 1.03–1.08]), and receipt of influenza vaccination (aRR 1.19 [95% CI 1.11–1.27]). Factors negatively associated with vaccination included female gender (aRR 0.92 [95% CI 0.85–1.0]), Black racial self-identification (aRR 0.89 [95% CI 0.80–0.99]) and low frequencies of masking in public places (aRR 0.83 [95% CI 0.72–0.95]). COVID-19 vaccine coverage is very high among people experiencing homelessness in Toronto, suggesting advocacy and outreach efforts may have been effective.

Biased Interviewer Assessments of Respondent Knowledge Based on Perceptions of Skin Tone

AbstractA rich literature documents the effects of survey interviewer race on respondents’ answers to questions about political issues and factual knowledge. In this paper, we advance the study of interviewer effects in two ways. First, we examine the impact of race on interviewers’ subjective evaluations of respondents’ political knowledge. Second, we substitute measures of respondent/interviewer racial self-identification with interviewer perceptions of respondent skin tone. We find that white interviewers subjectively rate black respondents’ knowledge lower than do black interviewers, even controlling for objective knowledge measures. Moreover, we identify a negative relationship between relative skin tone and interviewer's assessment of knowledge. Subsequent analyses show a linear relationship between subjective knowledge assessments and the difference between respondent and interviewer skin tone. We conclude with a discussion of the impact of colorism on survey administration and the measurement of political attitudes and democratic capabilities.

Las Vidas Negras Importan: Centering Blackness and Racial Politics in Latin American Research

Racial disparities in Latin America exist in poverty levels, income, education, infant mortality, political representation, access to social services, and other key indicators. However, researchers in comparative politics face an uphill challenge to prioritize racial politics in studies of democratization, democratic consolidation, representation, and even social movements and inequality, despite racial hierarchies being quite harmful to democracy in Latin America. This article argues for the centering of Black politics and racial hierarchies in Latin American politics and highlights recent literature to map just how that can be done. More than adding race as a variable or a control, we must understand racial identification and anti-Black racism in Latin America: how they operate, and how they influence, complicate, motivate, affirm, and inspire politics. In this article, I address ( a) why we should center racial politics in Latin American politics, ( b) how comparative racial scholars have centered Black politics, ( c) the methodologies necessary to accurately measure racial identification, and ( d) recent research that examines the interplay between racial self-identification, Black group consciousness, and voting behavior.

Reflecting Race and Status: The Dynamics of Material Hardship and How People Are Perceived

In most stratification research, race is treated as a static and one-dimensional individual characteristic, though a growing literature indicates dynamic and multidimensional measures better represent experiences of racial categorization and inequality. The authors leverage such measures to explore the relationship between material hardship and racial reflected appraisals, or how people report being perceived by others. Results from the New York City Longitudinal Survey of Wellbeing are consistent with a bidirectional relationship: first, people who reported being seen as Black or Hispanic were significantly more likely to experience later material hardship, net of both racial self-identification and earlier hardship; second, people with hardship experience were significantly more likely to report been perceived as Hispanic and significantly less likely to report being perceived as White, no matter how they self-identified. These findings underscore the dynamics of racial categorization and highlight the utility of including reflected race measures in studies of inequality.

Modern Trends in Dynamics of Racial Diversity in the U.S.

A number of studies show that the racial composition of the US population has become increasingly diverse over the past decades. The process of racial diversification is heterogeneous both geographically and in terms of which racial groups are the main contributors to the process. Based on data from the US Census Bureau for 2000, 2010, and 2020, American society is indeed becoming more diverse at the county level. At the same time, there are a number of geographical patterns regarding the development of this process. Thus, the most diverse states include the states of the American South, and the least diverse are the Midwestern states with a predominance of white population. Diversity gains are also unevenly distributed, with peak gains in the counties of the Midwest (low base effect), the American South (due to Hispanic migration), and within the Boswash metropolitan area. At the same time, south and west Texas, where Hispanics make up the majority of the population, has seen a decline in racial diversity. It was revealed that Hispanics make the main contribution to the racial diversification of the US population, the white population is the most static, the contributions of African Americans and Asian Americans are insignificant. It was found that a sharp increase in the number of the group "two or more races" is more associated with a change in the racial self-identification of the white population than with real diversification. The real "melting pots" where the growth of the "two or more races" group is associated with racial diversification are the large urban agglomerations of the American South.

How Many Americans Change Their Racial Identification over Time?

Despite long-standing assumptions about racial identity as a fixed characteristic, social scientists have increasingly recognized its fluidity and examined the origins of micro-level race change. However, knowledge regarding the prevalence of race change is limited. This data visualization fills this descriptive gap by providing a comprehensive account of recent levels of racial self-identification change among Americans. The author uses five high-quality panel surveys in which race is asked of the same nationally representative adult samples several years apart. Among all respondents, race change rates range from 5 percent to 12 percent across surveys, averaging 8 percent. Original white identifiers (4 percent on average) are much less prone to change than initial nonwhites collectively (20 percent). Blacks have as stable identities as whites, while mixed-race (52 percent) and “other”-race (73 percent) Americans undergo substantial identity shifts over time. Results further cement a perspective of race as flexible for some in the United States.

Inaccurate Ethnicity and Race Classification of Hispanics Following Trauma Admission

Race and ethnicity are associated with disparate trauma outcomes. This study seeks to characterize accuracy of trauma registry classification of patient race and ethnicity and to identify factors associated with misclassification. A prospective observational study of patients admitted to an urban Level 1 trauma center was conducted over a 6-mo period. Race and ethnicity data recorded in the trauma registry were compared to patients' self-identifying data obtained through in-person interviews. Logistic regression determined rates of discordant race and ethnicity between trauma registry and patient self-identification processes, and identified factors independently associated with misclassification. A total of 444 patients were recruited. 98 (22%) self-identified as Hispanic/Latino. 45 patients self-identifying as Hispanic (45.9%) had inaccurately recorded ethnicity in the trauma registry. There was an increased odds of ethnicity misclassification in younger patients (OR 0.97, P < 0.01) and Spanish-only speakers (OR 11.80, P < 0.001). A decreased odds was found in males (OR 0.43, P < 0.05). No factors increased odds of racial misclassification, while dual English/Spanish speakers (OR 0.05, P < 0.01) wereas found to have decreased odds. Neither ethnicity nor race misclassification was associated with clinical variables. New racial self-identification was observed with 75% of patients who self-identified ethnically as Hispanic also self-identifying racially as Hispanic. Hispanic trauma patients have racial and ethnic misclassifications regardless of clinical status. Racial and ethnic identification is not sufficiently captured by current standardized questionnaires. Accuracy of hospital level racial data is important for local and national policies to address trauma disparities.

Racialization and Psychological Distress among U.S. Latinxs.

This study investigated the relationship between race and psychological distress among Latinxs in the United States. Using data from the National Health Interview Survey (NHIS) 2010-2018, we estimated the relative risk ratios (RRR) of experiencing psychological distress among White, Black and Other Latinxs from Mexico, Cuba, Dominican Republic, and Puerto Rico. Results revealed that Black Latinxs experienced higher levels of psychological distress than their White counterparts. Additional analysis among and within groups showed that Puerto Ricans and Dominicans reported higher psychological distress than Mexicans, and that race was associated with the distress of Cubans and Mexicans, but not with the distress of Puerto Ricans and Dominicans. Future work on the effect of racial self-identification on Latinxs' mental health-related outcomes, such as psychological distress, should include multidimensional measures of racial identity, such as self-reported and ascribed race, racial ideology, as well as measures of skin color and discrimination. Integrating racialization experiences during clinical assessments would help practitioners to gain a more comprehensive picture of how these identities and experiences may shape the stress, distress, and mental health outcomes (e.g., depression, anxiety) of different racial and ethnic Latinx groups in the U.S.