Quantity Of Schooling Research Articles

Predicting New York Housing Prices: A Machine Learning Approach Incorporating School, Living facilities and Real Estate Market Factors

This study aims to predict housing prices in New York by utilizing machine learning methods that incorporate factors such as schools, living facilities, and the real estate market. This paper collected extensive data, including metrics on school quality, assessments of living facility convenience, and real estate market data. Employing a regression-based machine learning algorithm, the study incorporated these factors into a predictive model. Through training and testing the model, this study discovered that school quantity and the convenience of living facilities significantly impact housing prices. The predictive model demonstrated good accuracy and predictive capability on the test set, validating the effectiveness of this approach. The findings of this study provide valuable insights for real estate market participants, policymakers, and investors to better understand and forecast housing price trends in New York.

Cross‐country data on skills and the quality of schooling: A selective survey

AbstractScores in standardized international student achievement tests and some recent adult literacy studies provide interesting data on the quality of educational outputs and on the skill level of the population that can be a useful complement to the data on the quantity of schooling which have been most commonly used in the growth literature. This paper describes the most recent available primary data on the subject, reviews different attempts to organize, standardize, and summarize them, and discusses the strengths and weaknesses of the existing indicators and their potential usefulness as explanatory variables in empirical analyses of the determinants of income and welfare levels and growth rates. A final section investigates the distribution of these indicators across a sample of 21 OECD countries.

Cross-Country Data on Skills and the Quality of Schooling: A Selective Survey

Scores in standardized international student achievement tests and some recent adult literacy studies provide interesting data on the quality of educational outputs and on the skill level of the population that can be a useful complement to the data on the quantity of schooling which have been most commonly used in the growth literature. This paper describes the most recent available primary data on the subject, reviews different attempts to organize, standardize and summarize them, and discusses the strengths and weaknesses of the existing indicators and their potential usefulness as explanatory variables in empirical analyses of the determinants of income and welfare levels and growth rates. A final section investigates the distribution of these indicators across a sample of 21 core OECD countries.

Effect of quantity and quality of education on per capita real-GDP growth: evidence from low- and middle-income African countries

ABSTRACT Although several empirical studies have investigated the growth impact of the quantity of schooling in African countries, research on the impact of schooling quality (the degree to which schooling nurtures professional and cognitive skills) is rare. To fill this research gap, this study examines the effects of the quantity and quality of education on per capita real-GDP growth in low-income and a combination of low- and middle-income African countries using dynamic generalized method of moment estimation on panel data from 2003 to 2016. The results suggest the quantities of primary and secondary education have a positive and statistically significant impact on per capita real-GDP growth; however, the correlation between the quality of education and economic growth is weak and not robust. Furthermore, standardized coefficients indicate the quantity of primary education has a stronger impact on growth than the quantity of secondary education and quality of education, and the quantity of secondary education has a stronger impact on growth than the quality of education. Overall, these results suggest policy authorities should target both the quantity and quality of education to achieve per capita real-GDP growth, with a particular focus on ensuring universal primary education.

A Note on School Quality, Educational Attainment and the Wage Gap

This paper explores the linkage between school quality, educational attainment and the wage gap. In a model of statistical discrimination based on both the quality and quantity of schooling, we show that lower-quality education can, on average, lead to lower human capital accumulation if agents anticipate future labor market discrimination. Because blacks in general have less access to good-quality schools compared to whites, this link provides a novel explanation for the differences in black–white educational attainment and the resulting wage gap.

FDI, Education, and Economic Growth: Quality Matters

In this paper, we revisit the results from the influential study by Borensztein et al. (Journal of International Economics 45:115–135, 1998), which argues that inward foreign direct investment (FDI) promotes the economic growth in a less developed host country only when the host country obtains a threshold level of secondary schooling. Borensztein et al. (Journal of International Economics 45:115–135, 1998) only focus on the quantity of education. We take into consideration both the quantity and the quality of education. We adjust the original schooling data in Borensztein et al. (Journal of International Economics 45:115–135, 1998) by two quality of education indices and re-estimate their model. We find that the complementarity between inward FDI and schooling still exists, but the threshold level of schooling in our study is lower than the threshold calculated in Borensztein et al. (Journal of International Economics 45:115–135, 1998). Our results support the importance of education quality and suggest that with improved quality of education, it does not take as much quantity of schooling, as established in Borensztein et al. (Journal of International Economics 45:115–135, 1998), for inward FDI to have a positive impact on economic growth in the host country.

The quality vs. the quantity of schooling: What drives economic growth?

This paper challenges Hanushek and Woessmann's (2008) contention that the quality and not the quantity of schooling determines a nation's rate of economic growth. I first show that their statistical analysis is flawed. I then show that when a nation's average test scores and average schooling attainment are included in a national income model, both measures explain income differences, but schooling attainment has greater statistical significance. The high correlation between a nation's average schooling attainment, cumulative investment in schooling, and average tests scores indicates that average schooling attainment implicitly measures the quality as well as the quantity of schooling.

Flynn effects on sub-factors of episodic and semantic memory: Parallel gains over time and the same set of determining factors

The study examined the extent to which time-related gains in cognitive performance, so-called Flynn effects, generalize across sub-factors of episodic memory (recall and recognition) and semantic memory (knowledge and fluency). We conducted time-sequential analyses of data drawn from the Betula prospective cohort study, involving four age-matched samples (35-80 years; N=2996) tested on the same battery of memory tasks on either of four occasions (1989, 1995, 1999, and 2004). The results demonstrate substantial time-related improvements on recall and recognition as well as on fluency and knowledge, with a trend of larger gains on semantic as compared with episodic memory [Rönnlund, M., & Nilsson, L. -G. (2008). The magnitude, generality, and determinants of Flynn effects on forms of declarative memory: Time-sequential analyses of data from a Swedish cohort study. Intelligence], but highly similar gains across the sub-factors. Finally, the association with markers of environmental change was similar, with evidence that historical increases in quantity of schooling was a main driving force behind the gains, both on the episodic and semantic sub-factors. The results obtained are discussed in terms of brain regions involved.

If you build it, will they come? School availability and school enrolment in 21 poor countries

Increasing the supply of schools is commonly advocated as a policy to promote schooling outputs and outcomes. Analysis of the relationship between the school enrolment of 6- to 14-year-olds and the distance to primary and secondary schools in 21 rural areas of low-income countries (including some of the poorest countries in Sub-Saharan Africa) suggests that the two are often statistically significantly related. However, the magnitudes of the associations are small: simulating large reductions in distance yields only small increases in average school participation, and only small reductions in within country inequality. There are a number of reasons why this result might hold. Average effects might mask heterogeneity in the impact by initial distance to the nearest school, as well as by economic status; the existing quality of schools might be low and the simulation assumes that this would be the average quality of new schools; and the cross-sectional nature of the data make it hard to rule out that schools might be placed where they are ‘most needed’ which would bias the results towards zero. Sensitivity analysis suggests none of these drive the result: the results suggest that expectations for large overall increases in enrolment as a result of school construction should be tempered. They also suggest areas for more research to guide policy: in particular on the interaction between school quantity and quality; the potential importance of demand side subsidies; and the cost effectiveness of different approaches.

Education, College Major, and Job Match: Gender Differences in Reasons for Mismatch

Many studies have examined the match between years of schooling and the schooling required for the job. The quantity of schooling is only one way to consider the match between schooling and jobs. This paper considers an alternative match between education and jobs based on the relationship between college majors and work activities. Twenty percent of workers report their work is not related to their degree field. Work‐reported reasons for accepting such a position outside the field of study differ for men and women. The wage effects of mismatch vary considerably across the different reasons for accepting the position.

Education and job match: The relatedness of college major and work

The match between a worker's education and job has received much attention in the literature. Studies have focused on the match between years of schooling and the schooling required for the job, but the quantity of schooling is only one way to consider the match between schooling and jobs. This paper considers the relationship between college majors and occupations. Data from the National Survey of College Graduates are used to examine the extent to which workers report that their work activities unrelated to the college major. What degree fields lead to greater mismatch is explored as well as the effect on the returns to schooling.

Quality or Quantity? The Supply-side Determinants of Primary Schooling in a Poor Rural Economy1

The role of school quality in determining educational outcomes has received much research attention in the United States. However, in developing countries, where a significant part of the school age population never attends school, policymakers must consider both quality and quantity when deciding how to maximise the impact of scarce investments. Acknowledging this difference in the policy environment in developing countries, this paper provides comparative estimates of the impact of quality versus quantity investments in school supply in rural Mozambique, one of the world's poorest countries. Policy simulations show that improving school quality increases mean grade attainment and efficiency by approximately 4% and overall enrolment rates by a similar amount. However, much greater improvements can be generated by increasing starting enrolment probabilities through the establishment of new schools in all rural villages that currently do not have schools. Furthermore, significant rates of increase in school achievement indicators can be achieved by building schools in only 56% of all villages currently without schools, provided these schools are placed in those villages that also do not have a school nearby. When cost information is considered, the main policy implication is that the expansion of school quantity through well-targeted placement of new schools will provide the most cost-effective increase in educational outcomes for Mozambique at this time. Copyright 2006, Oxford University Press.

Why quality matters in education.

Most studies of the economic aspects of education focus on school attainment or the of education. This appears logical from the perspective of both analysis and policy: the quantity of schooling is easily measured and readily tracked over time. But it distorts policies and potentially leads to bad decisions. The policy challenges facing most countries at the beginning of the 21st century —including developing countries—are ones that have to do with quality rather than quantity. Higher quality translates into greater earnings for individuals over their lifetime. Moreover a society with a more educated labor force can also expect faster economic growth even if the returns may not be discernible for many years. Quality defined here by measured mathematics and science skills reflects a variety of factors—family inputs health schooling and so forth. Of these existing research suggests that the clearest way to improvement lies in strengthening schools. For those countries that stick to a path of real school quality improvement investments in education have the potential to deliver truly large economic as well as social gains. (excerpt)

Improving the Quality Versus Increasing the Quantity of Schooling

Interest in estimating the impact of school quality on earnings has increased. But most studies on this topic have important limitations, particularly in studies for developing countries. They tend to ignore behavioral decisions regarding schooling and individual and family background characteristics, use school quality measures aggregated to the regional level, and rely on crude indicators of teacher quality. These limitations may explain why the micro evidence of important school quality effects is scant. Moreover, the question of the relative rates of return, in terms of earnings, to improving school quality versus raising quantity has not been addressed. The data demands for estimating such rates of return are considerable. This paper presents a conceptual framework for undertaking such estimates, uses special data collected for this study, and makes estimates within a framework that controls for important individual and household choices, including the duration of schooling and subsequent participation in the wage labor market. Subject to qualifications because such an ambitious strategy stretches the limits of the even the special data that we collected, the estimates suggest that in rural Pakistan rates of return are much higher for investing in primary school quality or quantity than for investing in middle schools and, at the primary school level, somewhat higher for expanding low-quality schools (predominantly for girls) than for increasing quality in existing schools. More generally, the methods adopted here permit a more satisfactory assessment in developing economies than previously of the rates of return to improving school quality versus increasing quantity and their implications for educational policy.

Increasing school quantity versus quality in kenya: impact on children from low-and high-income households

A common dilemma facing educational planners engaged in educational reform in developing countries is the allocation of sharply-reduced resources to the expansion of school facilities versus improvement of existing school facilities (say, by raising the teacher/pupil ratio). The empirical results presented in this paper for Kenya suggest that the two interventions have diametrically opposite effects on poor and nonpoor children. An expansion of school facilities increases the enrollment of children in the poorest expenditure quintiles but has no impact on the enrollment of children in the top quintiles. On the other hand, an improvement in the teacher-pupil ratio increases the enrollment rate of children in the top quintiles, and actually reduces the enrollment of children in the poor quintiles. These findings suggest that in situations where there is less than universal primary enrollment (UPE) and the government has set a time-bound goal of UPE, such as in Kenya, policies that serve to expand the number of school facilities may make more sense than interventions that increase the teacher-pupil ratio.

College Choice and Wages: Estimates Using Data on Female Twins

The authors assess the impact of college quality on women's earnings and the influence of family and individual endowments on college choice using new data from a survey of identical and nonidentical twins born in Minnesota. The estimates reject models that ignore school choice. The statistically preferred estimates suggest that Ph.D.-granting, private universities with well-paid senior faculty and smaller enrollments produce students who have significantly higher earnings later in life. Both the quantity of schooling and the quality of schooling resources are allocated to higher-endowed individuals, which exacerbates preexisting inequality in human capital and biases conventional estimates of school quality effects. Copyright 1996 by MIT Press.

The Effect on Black-White Wage Differences of Differences in the Quantity and Quality of Education

Using data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth for the years 1979–88, the author examines the extent to which black-white differences in educational attainment, educational quality, and unmeasured individual ability can explain black-white wage differences. An analysis that corrects for both selectivity and ability biases inherent in estimating the education-wage relationship shows that the main source of the black-white wage differential is the racial difference in the quality rather than quantity of schooling. In fact, the author concludes, closing the racial gap in the basic skills learned in school could reduce the wage differential by two-thirds.

A Between-Grade-Levels Approach to the Investigation of the Absolute Effects of Schooling on Achievement

The universal nature of school attendance precludes the experimental investigation of the absolute effect of schooling on achievement. The available empirical evidence consists of the results of post hoc analyses of the within-grade-level relationship of students’ achievement to the quality and quantity of schooling. This paper suggests a between-grade-levels quasi-experimental approach to the investigation of school’s effect on achievement, involving the estimation of this effect by means of a regression discontinuity design. The paper presents the rationale underlying the suggested approach and demonstrates its application to the estimation of the effect of schooling at grade 2 on achievement in mathematics and reading comprehension.

A Between-Grade-Levels Approach to the Investigation of the Absolute Effects of Schooling on Achievement

The universal nature of school attendance precludes the experimental investigation of the absolute effect of schooling on achievement. The available empirical evidence consists of the results of post hoc analyses of the within-grade-level relationship of students’ achievement to the quality and quantity of schooling. This paper suggests a between-grade-levels quasi-experimental approach to the investigation of school’s effect on achievement, involving the estimation of this effect by means of a regression discontinuity design. The paper presents the rationale underlying the suggested approach and demonstrates its application to the estimation of the effect of schooling at grade 2 on achievement in mathematics and reading comprehension.

The Contextual Correlates of the Relative Expenditures of Classroom Time on Instruction and Behavior: An Exploratory Study of Secondary Schools and Classes

Multivariate relationships are described between the proportions of classroom time observed in instructional and behavioral modalities and six potentially important contextual variable subsets. Canonical regressions and correlations were computed between each contextual variable subset and the proportions of observed time measures both between schools and within schools (at the classroom level). The magnitudes of resultant relationships were not great. Comparatively speaking, however, important differences emerged between (a) analyses at school and classroom levels, (b) junior and senior high school classes, (c) contextual variable subsets, and (d) the sizes of associations with instructional and behavioral time. It is recommended that future “quantity of schooling” studies include time spent on discipline and control (as well as on task) and be both substantively and analytically sensitive to both school and classroom effects.