Groundwater Quantity Research Articles

Exploration of Groundwater Quality to Promote Sustainable Environment

Groundwater is the combination of different minerals and salts which is available to the human kind for the survival primarily and also for all the developmental activities of the society. Around the world the quality of the groundwater at majority of the fresh water aquifers is good and recommendable for consumption with basic treatment where as the accessibility of groundwater[6] depends on the practices taking place for lifting of water, rate of consumption along with the climatic conditions. Groundwater is the most important and the essential need for all the living beings irrespective of age and the species they belongs to, because almost more than ninety percent of metabolic activities of the human beings and the other living organisms depends on the water itself, even though water is available in the other notable form as surface water [5] it is not at all recommendable for consumption without proper required treatment [7]. In the present scenario accessing of quality groundwater is the most difficult and complex issue to meet the daily demand of the public especially in the developing cities [9] and the towns it is very big complicated issue due to the continues addition of unpredictable population year by year which makes the situation more worse. Apart from the above man made activities quality and the quantity of groundwater also depends on the existed soil conditions and its function with respect to the water holding capacity and rate of infiltration. The present study was carried out at downstream area of Krishna River in mangalagiri mandal of Guntur district, Andhra Pradesh. The study area had been divided into eight locations based on the possible interference of groundwater by human activities to find out the complete and detail composition of various cationic, anionic and heavy metals of water to estimate the suitability of water for consumption

Environmental Impact Statement on Kolleru Lake Water

Catchments are most important for the purpose of practicing irrigation and recharging groundwater by collecting water during the rainy season so that the nearby land will be in surplus quantity of groundwater due to the continues percolation of water from the catchments, even the stored water in the form of catchments will be used as an alternative water source for other requirements apart from the irrigation practices such as for industries and other developmental activities taking place nearby the catchments. Year by year it was noticed that in the world scenario the pollutant concentration is keep on increasing especially water and air pollution due to the excessive load of population that is increasing from the rural to urban areas [10]. Coming to water pollution the major portion of pollution is increasing in the surface water bodies [4] due to various activities like surface runoff, intentionally releasing of untreated effluents from the nearby industries into the catchments [8] and the agricultural runoff etc, whatever the reason there is an immediate need and an emergency to monitor these catchments as the average rainfall is gradually decreasing due to the changing climatic conditions like global warming which leads to the reduced availability of water in the surface water bodies at the other side the existing water is being contaminated [5] by the activities of nearby people. The impact will be severe when the same situation continues in the days to come where the living standards of the people will be decreased at a notable level and the impact will be much more severe on the irrigated land which depends on the catchments. The study has done at Kolleru Lake in west godavari district, Andhra Pradesh. Collected Six Water samples from six locations around the lake for analysis [7] and then the results of the analysis compared with Central Pollution Control Board 1979and Indian standards 1982 guidelines for water in the surface water bodies to find out the present scenario of lake water.

Temperature controls production but hydrology regulates export of dissolved organic carbon at the catchment scale

Abstract. Lateral carbon flux through river networks is an important and poorly understood component of the global carbon budget. This work investigates how temperature and hydrology control the production and export of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) in the Susquehanna Shale Hills Critical Zone Observatory in Pennsylvania, USA. Using field measurements of daily stream discharge, evapotranspiration, and stream DOC concentration, we calibrated the catchment-scale biogeochemical reactive transport model BioRT-Flux-PIHM (Biogeochemical Reactive Transport–Flux–Penn State Integrated Hydrologic Model, BFP), which met the satisfactory standard of a Nash–Sutcliffe efficiency (NSE) value greater than 0.5. We used the calibrated model to estimate and compare the daily DOC production rates (Rp; the sum of the local DOC production rates in individual grid cells) and export rate (Re; the product of the concentration and discharge at the stream outlet, or load). Results showed that daily Rp varied by less than an order of magnitude, primarily depending on seasonal temperature. In contrast, daily Re varied by more than 3 orders of magnitude and was strongly associated with variation in discharge and hydrological connectivity. In summer, high temperature and evapotranspiration dried and disconnected hillslopes from the stream, driving Rp to its maximum but Re to its minimum. During this period, the stream only exported DOC from the organic-poor groundwater and from organic-rich soil water in the swales bordering the stream. The DOC produced accumulated in hillslopes and was later flushed out during the wet and cold period (winter and spring) when Re peaked as the stream reconnected with uphill and Rp reached its minimum. The model reproduced the observed concentration–discharge (C–Q) relationship characterized by an unusual flushing–dilution pattern with maximum concentrations at intermediate discharge, indicating three end-members of source waters. A sensitivity analysis indicated that this nonlinearity was caused by shifts in the relative contribution of different source waters to the stream under different flow conditions. At low discharge, stream water reflected the chemistry of organic-poor groundwater; at intermediate discharge, stream water was dominated by the organic-rich soil water from swales; at high discharge, the stream reflected uphill soil water with an intermediate DOC concentration. This pattern persisted regardless of the DOC production rate as long as the contribution of deeper groundwater flow remained low (<18 % of the streamflow). When groundwater flow increased above 18 %, comparable amounts of groundwater and swale soil water mixed in the stream and masked the high DOC concentration from swales. In that case, the C–Q patterns switched to a flushing-only pattern with increasing DOC concentration at high discharge. These results depict a conceptual model that the catchment serves as a producer and storage reservoir for DOC under hot and dry conditions and transitions into a DOC exporter under wet and cold conditions. This study also illustrates how different controls on DOC production and export – temperature and hydrological flow paths, respectively – can create temporal asynchrony at the catchment scale. Future warming and increasing hydrological extremes could accentuate this asynchrony, with DOC production occurring primarily during dry periods and lateral export of DOC dominating in major storm events.

Do crop price expectations matter? An analysis of groundwater pumping decisions in Western Kansas

The Ogallala Aquifer is the main water resource for irrigated agricultural production in much of Western Kansas. It is hypothesized that as crop price expectations increase, producers will apply more water to increase yields in order to maximize profit. Using field-level panel data on groundwater pumped for irrigation in Western Kansas, this paper examines whether irrigated producers’ groundwater pumping decisions are consistent with the profit maximization framework by empirically testing if crop price expectations have a positive impact on the quantity of groundwater pumped. In general, the empirical results indicate that crop price expectations have no statistically significant impact on the quantity of groundwater pumped per acre. This suggests that groundwater pumping decisions are not consistent with the profit maximization framework and that irrigated producers consider groundwater as a fixed input possibly due to limited availability of groundwater in the area. Our econometric analysis also suggests that only a small portion of rainfall is effective.

Drip irrigation technology in Karnataka, India

This study assesses whether the practice of drip irrigation in Karnataka reduced the usage of groundwater. It finds that while drip irrigation does reduce the quantity of groundwater used per acre, the quantity of the groundwater used per farm does not fall concomitantly, because the irrigation intensity of drip irrigation is greater. Therefore, limiting the area under drip irrigation would make the adoption of the technology sustainable and address food security, and the government should complement the practice of drip irrigation. There is no rebound effect or instance of the Jevons paradox.

Geostatistical analysis and optimization of the state hydrogheological monitoring network within the Pripyat river basin (Ukraine)

Formulation of the problem. The State Hydrogeological Monitoring Network has to provide the necessary information to manage groundwater resources and prevent negative changes in the geological environment. Currently, there is a negative tendency to decrease the number of observation wells, loss of information about the space-time variability of the hydrogeological regime elements in Ukraine. In conditions of limited funding, an important task is to develop an effective strategy for reforming the hydrogeological monitoring system, taking into account international experience and based on modern geoinformation technologies. Particular attention has to be given to transboundary territories. One of them is the Pripyat River basin, which is characterized by the low level of the State Hydrogeological Monitoring Network representativeness, both in comparison with European Union standards and with the existing groundwater monitoring network of neighbouring Belarus. The purpose of the article is to evaluate the actual state of the hydrogeological observation wells network and optimize it within the territory of the Ukrainian part of the transboundary Pripyat watershed basin. Methodology and materials. The State Scientific and Production Enterprise "Geoinform of Ukraine" database of State Groundwater Monitoring System composition and functioning as well as zoning map under the conditions of water exchange formation in the upper water-bearing level were used for the study. For the studied territory of the water exchange basin of Pripyat, the analysis of density and uniformity of the observation points distribution as well as the variogram analysis of the spatial distribution of groundwater-level altitudes within the study area were carried. For the actual monitoring network, the expected error of the spatial modelling of the groundwater-surface was evaluated. Results. The obtained results of the geostatistical analysis made it possible to substantiate the project wells locations within the water exchange sub-basins to improve the quality of hydrogeological monitoring problem solutions. Scientific novelty. The method of the hydrogeological monitoring network optimization has been improved based on geoinformation and geostatistical approaches and implemented for the Ukrainian part of the Pripyat River basin, taking into account the hydrogeological conditions of the territory and the configuration of the existing network. Practical significance. Optimization and increment of the observation wells network, taking into account the obtained results, will provide the effective functioning of the hydrogeological monitoring system within the Ukrainian part of the Pripyat River basin and will have an economic effect, given that the cost of any measures to improve the groundwater quality and quantity is far more expensive than the monitoring system optimization.

Impact of over-pumping on groundwater resources sustainability at Amman Zarqa basin, Jordan: a case study of arid areas affected by Syrian refugees crisis

Jordan is one of the most water-deprived countries worldwide. Groundwater is one of the main water resources in the country, nonetheless, long-term over-pumping, especially from the northern groundwater basin has been severely depleting the groundwater availability. This study evaluates the effects of over-pumping on groundwater quantity at the northeastern part of Amman Zarqa basin (Mafraq region including Zaatari Syrian Refugee Camp). Groundwater data were collected from the literature and the records of the Jordan Ministry of Water and Irrigation. Arcmap software was implemented to construct groundwater level, groundwater flow and aquifer thickness maps. The study area is mainly comprised of two groundwater aquifers, the Basaltic and the Amman Silicified Limestone aquifers. The outcomes of this evaluation indicate a severe decline in groundwater levels reaching up to a range of 1–5 m/year. This decline has led to a deterioration in the whole groundwater system and a noted reduction in the groundwater storage, reflected in the shrinkage of the aquifers’ saturated thicknesses.

Quantification of Groundwater Exploitation and Assessment of Water Quality Risk Perception in the Dar Es Salaam Quaternary Aquifer, Tanzania

This study quantified groundwater exploitation and assessed water quality risk perception in the Dar es Salaam quaternary aquifer through a socio-economic survey. Annual total groundwater exploitation was estimated, using the daily per capita consumption of groundwater derived from the household survey. A logistic regression analysis was performed to ascertain the influence of sex, marital status, education level, employment, income, and cost of water on groundwater quality risk perception. It was revealed that most residents of Dar es Salaam use groundwater as a main source of water supply. The results of this study further showed that 78% consider groundwater as a reliable source. Averting strategies for insufficient quantity of groundwater consist of minimizing less necessary water uses, while for poor quality, buying bottled water and water treatment by boiling and using chemicals. The chance for water quality risk perception is 0.205 times greater for married than unmarried household heads, and it is 623 times higher for employed versus unemployed household heads. To get an overall view of the importance of groundwater for domestic needs in Dar es Salaam it is imperative to combine a time series data of groundwater and surface water exploitation.

The impact of land use/land cover changes on groundwater resources using remote sensing & GIS (Case study: Khan-Mirza Plain).

Hydrological status and water table fluctuations are directly related to land use and/or land cover (LULC) changes in each area. In this research, the impact of LULC changes on groundwater quantity and quality of Khan-Mirza Plain, in the northern Karun watersheds, was investigated. For this purpose, Landsat 5, 7 and 8 satellite images and ETM and OLI sensors were employed to prepare the LULC map of Khan-Mirza Plain for 2006 and 2016 using the artificial neural network algorithm. The neural network algorithm with the general accuracy of 90/29 was classified into six use classes (agriculture, rangeland, residential areas, rocky and bare lands, gardens and lowlands). Analysis of changes indicated that agricultural and residential uses were increased, respectively, by 62.5% and 3.5%. The biggest change was in conversion of the rocky and bare lands for the agricultural use. Another change was in the LULC of rocky and bare lands and rangelands: these have been converted into to the residential areas. A few piezometric wells in the plain were also used to investigate the lowering of the groundwater table during the 2006- 2016 period. The quality parameters investigated were calcium, sodium, magnesium, potassium, all soluble solids, electrical conductivity, sulfate, chlorine, bicarbonate, and water acidity (PH). Investigation of the time variation of the groundwater quality parameters further showed that potassium, water acidity, and bicarbonate followed an upward trend during the studied time. Most chemical parameters of water had the highest concentrations in the central plain area. The results, therefore, showed that increase of degradation and growth of human activities in the region had both caused changes in the LULC, subsequently intensifying the quantitative and qualitative loss of groundwater in the Khan-Mirza Plain. Therefore, the areas with irrigated agriculture, dry farming, and undeveloped agriculture have been increased. One of the main reasons for lowering of water table in 2016 was the excessive exploitation of groundwater as a result of the change in agriculture uses.

Radio-tracing techniques applied in a marine ecosystem, the case of a submarine groundwater source at southern Peloponnesus

The submarine discharge of groundwater (SGD) into the coastal zone has been recognized as an important component of the hydrological cycle. Quantities of groundwater flowing toward coastal aquifers are leaded under the seafloor and due to geomorphologic causes may discharge into the coastal zone. At some locations the quantity of the water is large enough to establish these springs as valuable water sources. The estimation of the submarine groundwater flux is complicated by conventional methods. Instead, measurements of a variety of radioisotopes (222Rn, 214Pb, 226Ra, 228Ra, 40K, 3H) as tracers provide a means to obtain integrated flux estimations as well as residence time, the age of the water and a factor of ground-sea water mixing process. Results from the current study at Stoupa’s (S. Peloponnesus) SGD source are presented revealing the importance of radio-tracing methods to the investigation of marine ecosystems.

Quality and Quantity of Groundwater in Highly Exploited Aquifers of Northwest India

AbstractThe declining trends in water levels and degrading water quality in most parts of India are major concerns which need to be addressed. A hydrochemical study was carried out in parts of sout...

Risk of Fluoride-Rich Groundwater on Human Health: Remediation Through Managed Aquifer Recharge in a Hard Rock Terrain, South India

The main objective of the present research was to examine the risk of fluoride-rich groundwater in the Shanmuganadhi River basin, south India on human health. The non-carcinogenic risks were estimated into two classes: (1) risks associated with oral intake of water and (2) risks associated with dermal contact. Hazard Quotient for oral intake and dermal contact was separately calculated for adult men, adult women and children from the geochemical results of 61 representative samples collected from the wells constructed in hard rock aquifers during the post- (January-2018) and pre-monsoon (May-2018) seasons. The collected samples were analyzed immediately after the field work for all the major ions and fluoride. Finally, total hazard index was calculated for adults (men and women) and children to evaluate the risk. It directed that 41%, 49% and 74% of post-monsoon samples and 30%, 43% and 62% of pre-monsoon samples possessed a non-carcinogenic risk for men, women and children, respectively. Because the basin falls in the drought-prone region, the water supply for drinking and cultivation are commonly based on groundwater resources. The study revealed that the minerals such as apatite, fluorite, biotite and pyroxene in the hornblende–biotite gneiss formation contribute fluoride ions to the groundwater system due to water–rock interaction mechanism. The Durov diagram depicted that dissolution of silicate minerals and cation exchange are the foremost hydrogeochemical activities, which decide the overall chemical composition of groundwater in this region. The ionic concentrations including fluoride increased with respect to depth of occurrence of groundwater. Escalation of the water table due to monsoon recharge and artificial recharge through a check dam decreased the total dissolved solids and fluoride ion concentration. The investigation conducted around the existing check dam at Kaldurai village highlighted that the fluoride concentration is below the allowable limit of 1.5 mg/l (WHO in World health statistics 2017: monitoring health for the SDGs, Sustainable Development Goals. World Health Organization, Geneva, 2017) in the wells closer to the check dam toward the downstream side. The concentration increased with distance, which lead the groundwater unsuitable for consumption. Therefore, it is recommended to implement the managed aquifer recharge using check dams in the other parts of the basin to enrich the quantity and applicability of groundwater.

Multi-objective Freshwater Management in Coastal Aquifers Under Uncertainty in Hydraulic Parameters

This paper proposes a novel stochastic framework for groundwater quantity and quality management in aquifers threatened by saltwater intrusion. In this methodology, a finite difference SEAWAT code is linked with an optimization model to solve density-dependent groundwater flow equations considering different patterns of pumping rates. To reduce the computational time of the simulation–optimization process especially when there are a high number of decision variables, a modular evolutionary polynomial regression (MEPR) model is developed and coupled with the optimization algorithm. The info-gap theory is utilized to evaluate the robustness of optimal scenarios incorporating the uncertainty of hydraulic conductivity (k) of the heterogeneous aquifer. For each management scenario proposed by the simulation–optimization model, values of robustness and opportuneness indices are computed based on utility functions of different agricultural sectors. The results of applying the proposed method to the Qom aquifer in Iran show that coupling MEPR model with the simulation–optimization model considering the uncertainty of the aquifer parameter k could provide a reliable management scenario with a comparatively low computational cost.

Integrated Modelling for Groundwater Contamination from Polluted Streams Using New Protection Process Techniques

Evaluating water quality indicators is a crucial issue in integrated water resource management, since potable water is an essential resource for the world's health and sustainable development. The current study was developed using a coupled model of MODFLOW and MT3DMS (Mass Transport 3-Dimension Multi-Species) to integrate two water supply systems, surface water (polluted drains and canals) and ground water, to identify the contamination process of the groundwater from drains as fresh water is polluted and the contamination level exceeds the standard limits. The study was applied to two cases: the first was a hypothetical simulation and the second was the real case of the Nile Delta Aquifer (NDA). Four different scenarios were simulated to first identify groundwater contamination by total dissolved solids (TDS), and then select the more efficient protection process. The first scenario involved changing polluted drain and canal boundary conditions regarding head and concentration; the second consisted of studying the location of the polluted drain in a low permeability layer or a confined aquifer; the third was based on installing a cut-off wall in the polluted drain sides; and the fourth investigated the use of lining materials for polluted drains. The results reveal that aquifer contamination was decreased by increasing the water head of canals by 50 cm and decreasing the drain head by 50 cm and concentration by 25%, whereby large quantities of groundwater were protected. The percentages of salt repulsion in the hypothetical case were +10.66, +12.89, and +24.99%, while in NDA they were +6.29, +8.71, and +25% respectively compared with the base case. Decreasing the aquifer hydraulic conductivity led to decrease in aquifer contamination, in which the confined aquifer pollution was less than the unconfined aquifers due to the clay cap, which plays a significant role in minimizing the solute transport into the groundwater reservoir, and to reduction of the aquifer salt variation by +19.01% for the hypothetical case. The results indicate that the cut-off wall is effective for contamination management in shallow aquifers (hypothetical case) and the reduction in aquifer salt was +28.49%, whereas it had no effect in the deep aquifer (NDA), where the salt was reduced by just +0.34%. Using the drain lining scenario prevented contamination from the polluted drains and protected the freshwater in the aquifer, so that the aquifer salt mass reductions were +91.02 and +70.13% for the hypothetical case and NDA respectively, indicating that this method is more effective for controlling groundwater contamination. Polluted drains should be located in a low permeability layer to minimize the water degradation. This study represents a new contribution to groundwater protection techniques by changing the boundary conditions, installing a cut-off wall and using linings for polluted drains, and shows the way forward for the future treatment of polluted stream networks.

The current state of domestic water consumption and the feasibility of implementing a rainwater harvesting system in the coastal zone of the Vietnamese Mekong delta: the case study of the Vinh Chau town, Soc Trang province

The research was conducted to assess the feasibility of the installation of a rainwater harvesting system for households facing difficulties in using tap water and groundwater for domestic purposes in a coastal area of the Vietnamese Mekong delta - the case study of the Vinh Chau town, Soc Trang province. Direct household interviews and literature review were executed to comprehend the current state of domestic water consumption. According to the research results, Vinh Chau was among the towns seeing moderate rainfall in the delta (~ 1,776 mm/year), and rainwater was used frequently by the local people. However, local households did not employ proper harvesting techniques, hence the harvested rainwater did not meet the required quality for domestic use. Additionally, difficulties in using tap water, groundwater, and surface water were notable. The quality of tap water was not suitable for household consumption because of the presence of aluminum, and the price was high relative to the household’s income. Salinization of surface and groundwater, as well as degradation in quantity of ground water, made water of acceptable quality scarce. The research results also indicated that the use of rainwater harvested by a proper system demonstrated a higher cost efficiency than that of other water resources. Therefore, the installation of a rainwater harvesting system for water supply should be encouraged in order to provide a safe and efficient alternative water source for domestic use, and to contribute to the relief of domestic water-related issues and pressure on groundwater extraction in the study area.

Climate Change Impacts on Groundwater Resources in the Coastal Karstic Adriatic Area: A Case Study from the Dinaric Karst

The Bokanjac–Policnik system, as a complex set of mutually interrelated Dinaric karst catchments and sub-catchments, is a highly vulnerable and limited groundwater source for the wider Zadar area in northern Dalmatia, Croatia. Based on hydrogeological, hydrochemical, and hydrological research, including the prediction of groundwater discharge by the end of the twenty-first century, a complex study was performed with the following main aims: (1) groundwater protection in the present state, (2) assessment of future groundwater protection, and (3) prediction of drinking water availability and quality under the predicted climate change conditions. Long-term prediction of changes in groundwater quantity, as well as investigations of trends in groundwater quality, will allow us to protect this essential natural resource with respect to possible negative trends. The results showed that a significant decrease in the quantity of available groundwater is possible and that extraction will have to be well planned because any decrease in the groundwater pressure in this area will cause a further decrease in quality, especially regarding the possibility of seawater intrusions into the aquifer. The results of this study were incorporated in sanitary protection zones.

Conservation of Groundwater Resources in Arid Lands: A comparative study of NaiGaj Pakistan and WadiDhahban Saudi Arabia

This research was conducted to compare the two research areas NaiGaj, Pakistan and WadiDhahban, Saudi Arabia having Ground Water Potential (GWR). The main objectives of the research was to determine the different parameters that support the ground water availability such as vegetation, nature of slope, Rain Water Rills(RWR), climatic data and land cover area with help of modern techniques. Pakistan and Saudi Arabia emanates under as Arid or Semi-Arid category of land. Both research area have almost same topography, where ground and river water is not found. Growers irrigate land by saline water of different drain canals (in Pakistan) and Rain Water Rills coming from the uplands. A 61 km wide and 326 km long belt is found in slope of Khirthar Mountain in Sindh, Pakistan, this belt is rain shadowarea. Similarly, WadiDhahban has same geographical features, located near the coastal belt of RedSea, where dozens of RWRs are presents and trembled in the Sea.The maps of groundwater potential of both study areas were designed with the help of RS and GIS software.GIS and RS havesignificant role in mapping of ground-water quality and quantity for assessment and monitoring purposes.It was observed through the maps that both areas have ground water potential. Furthermore, the results indicated that NaiGaj has 30.3 % ground water potential and WadiDhahban has 15.8% ground water potential.

Groundwater and its economic nature

Groundwater is best described as an open access good: as a common pool resource others cannot be excluded from using and as a finite resource, its consumption leaves less for others to enjoy. In addition to its obvious benefits to humans and animals, it contributes in sustaining the hydro-environment and life on the planet. Scarcity causes groundwater to become an economic good and have an economic value. By and large, economic valuations respond to changes in the quantity and quality of groundwater. They are based on willingness to pay for maintaining its benefits or willingness to accept compensation for giving them up. There have been some 50 published groundwater valuation studies worldwide in the last 30 years, mostly focusing on groundwater quality and contamination. There is sparsity of valuations in Africa and Asia. The results suggest median economic values of 60–160 and mean values of 70–480 US dollars per household per year. Generally, values are higher in the USA followed by Europe, and lowest in Asia. People's income is a major factor affecting values, but this does not mean that they value groundwater less. Economic valuations and cost–benefit analysis are useful in highlighting people's priorities and choice of options. However, economics alone should not dictate actions for protecting groundwater resources from degradation and depletion.

Penyuluhan Teknik Pembuatan Lubang Biopori dalam Pencegahan Banjir di Desa Pemalongan Kecamatan Pelaihari Kabupaten Tanah Laut

Land use that is not in accordance with conservation rules and exceeds the capacity of its carrying capacity, will cause critical land. The behavior of the people who have not supported the preservation of land and the environment have caused floods in the rainy season. Efforts are needed to improve the management of water resources, namely to keep the quantity of groundwater maintained so as to ensure the availability of water for the community. The development of infiltration wells and making biopore holes is intended as a medium to hold and store rainwater. Biopori holes are cheap and good environmental technology. The main capital is human desire and awareness to save their environment from water availability and water pollution. Extension of biopore hole making techniques is done by the lecture method along with questions and answers and demonstrations. The lecture method is needed to explain the concept of management efforts and the sustainability of the existence of water sources and biopore holes in general, while the question and answer to give the opportunity for participants to better understand the concept so that those who do not understand can ask. Demonstration methods are needed to clarify the process of the technique and the stages of making biopore.

Hydrogeochemical Assessment of Groundwater Quality of Mokopane Area, Limpopo, South Africa Using Statistical Approach

Despite being a finite resource, both the quality and quantity of groundwater are under tremendous pressure due to rapid global changes, viz. population growth, land-use/land-cover changes (LULC), and climate change. The 6th Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) aims to “Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all”. One of the most significant dimensions of the SDG agenda is the emphasis on data and governance. However, the lack of good governance coupled with good observed data cannot ensure the achievement of SDG6. Therefore, this study strives to evaluate water quality status and hydrochemical processes governing it in the data-scarce Mokopane area of South Africa. Groundwater is the main source of fresh water supply for domestic usage, intensive agriculture, and mining activities in Mokopane. In this study, hydrogeochemical analysis of groundwater samples was employed to calculate the water quality index (WQI) and evaluate factors governing water quality evolution in the study area. Statistical and spatial analysis techniques were carried out to divide sampling sites into clusters and delineate principal factors responsible for determining water quality of the sampled groundwater. Results suggest that most of the physico-chemical parameters are within permissible limits for drinking water set by the World Health Organization (WHO), except for high fluoride in some samples. Na-HCO3 is the most abundant water type followed by Mg-HCO3, which indicates dominance of Na+, Mg2+, and HCO3±. Rock-water interaction is the prime factor responsible for fluoride enrichment in water. The alkaline nature of groundwater favors the release of exchangeable F− from minerals like muscovite. The WQI suggests that 80% of water samples fall into the good and excellent categories. Poor management of untreated domestic sewage and agricultural runoff is a main factor for the bad/very bad categories of water samples. As the area lacks any credible scientific/government work to report water quality and its management aspects, the findings of this study will definitely help both scientific communities and policy makers to do what is needed for sustainable water resource management in a timely manner.