Qing Research Articles

“It is more pernicious than opium”: morphine consumption and control in late Qing China, c.1871-1909

In the 1870s, European and American medical missionaries and pharmaceutical companies introduced morphine into China as an anti-opium medicine. The proliferation and abuse of morphine fueled a discussion on the harms of this drug. After the Sino-Japanese War, the governor of Shanghai and other local officials proclaimed the control of morphine at the request of the local elites. However, since morphine came from abroad and was traded by foreigners, its prohibition became a diplomatic issue. After the Boxer Rebellion of 1900, morphine import control was included in the revised commercial treaties between China and the foreign powers at the behest of the Qing government. However, the restrictions imposed by the foreign powers prevented the Qing government from enforcing the prohibition. The importation of morphine by foreigners was a source of controversy, so there was an urgent need to negotiate on the terms of morphine import control. After tortuous negotiations, the Qing government and the British and other powers agreed on a new control policy, which came into effect in 1909. The proliferation of morphine during the Qing era was the combined result of the medical missions, the commercial expansion by Western pharmaceutical companies, and the Qing government’s anti-opium campaign. The twists and turns of the morphine import control policy and the negotiations between China and other countries highlight the struggle of the Qing government under the hegemony of the imperialist powers and the power asymmetry between China and the West.

Practicing Islamic law in late imperial China: dispersed Muslim minority and normative legal pluralism

ABSTRACT Using Chinese Muslims in the Qing empire as a case study, this paper discusses how dispersed Muslim minorities may acquire non-territorial autonomy in a secular legal order. I seek to explore: Invisible under the territorially based system of Qing imperial plurality, were Chinese Muslims able to attain certain autonomy in practicing Islamic law? If so, how and in what aspects were they able to bring in Islamic law or authorities? To examine the questions, I focus on both legal discourses of the imperial state as well as everyday legal practices of Chinese Muslims. Sources include official legal records of the central and county-level governments, late-Qing newspaper reports, as well as Chinese Muslims’ stele inscriptions, genealogies, literary and religious writings. I argue that on the one hand, without formal juridical autonomy, Chinese Muslims generally held a pragmatic attitude towards law and dispute settlement. They were willing to resort—and indeed very frequently did so—to the Qing law and government even for family and religious matters. On the other hand, as a form of informal or normative legal pluralism, the Qing Code left room for extrajudicial handling of non-severe legal matters in China proper. Chinese Muslims were thus able to take advantage of such design and negotiate a place for Islamic law and authorities at the community level. Their everyday legal practices serve as counter-evidence against the presumed incompatibility between Islamic law and China’s secular legal order in premodern times.

Exploring factors influencing the characteristics of historic cities: the case of the Ancient City of Pingyao, China

ABSTRACT Amid growing international attention to the preservation and development of cultural heritage, particularly historic cities, case studies that examine the characteristics and influencing factors of individual historic cities with diverse cultural contexts are of great significance. This paper focuses on Pingyao in China. It uses historical records to conduct a spatial reanalysis of this historic city. By examining the period following the cessation of financial operations by Shanxi merchants’ institutions, this study highlights elements of Chinese ritual-based city planning and the legacy of Shanxi merchants, investigating their continuity and transformation over time. Additionally, the spatial evolution of ordinary residential buildings is analysed using collected data, revealing how these structures have evolved in response to shifts in the social context. The findings reveal that city planning and the influence of Shanxi merchants have persisted through functional transitions. The spatial structure of Pingyao has largely remained unchanged since the Ming and Qing dynasties, thanks to minimal changes in internal traffic patterns and land allocation. However, modern infrastructure developments, including road improvements and tourism initiatives, pose challenges to the preservation of this spatial structure, which may potentially result in distancing the elements from the daily lives of local residents.

Sowing resilience: quantifying the role of American crops in mitigating malthusian catastrophes during climatic extremes in history

Abstract Previous large-N quantitative research on the historical human-environment nexus has primarily emphasized the negative impacts of climate change on social stability, economic development, and the collapse of civilizations. In contrast, this study seeks to provide a statistical analysis of the resilience mechanisms that human societies have historically employed to adapt to and mitigate adverse environmental conditions. Agricultural development, as a crucial component of social resilience, has played a pivotal role in enabling societies to absorb climate-induced subsistence pressures. We systematically examine how introducing American crops mitigated the relationship between climatic extremes – specifically floods and droughts – and Malthusian catastrophes such as famines and wars during the Ming and Qing Dynasties in China. By collecting and analyzing records of four high-yield American crops – maize, peanuts, sweet potatoes, and potatoes – from 3,071 local chronicles across 236 prefectures, we employ the Spatial Durbin Model (SDM) to evaluate both the direct and spillover effects of these crops during hydroclimatic extremes quantitatively to see how they contributed to social resilience. Our statistical results indicate that introducing these American crops had significant mitigating effects on Malthusian catastrophes during climate extremes, with varying impacts among the different crops. Maize and peanuts were particularly effective in reducing wars during floods, while peanuts, sweet potatoes, and potatoes tended to alleviate famines during droughts. Regional comparison reveals that these catastrophe-mitigating effects were more pronounced in the south-western mountainous zone and that spatial spillover effects were more significant in the central-eastern rice cultivation zone. These findings underscore the importance of agricultural development in enhancing social resilience to climatic extremes. By highlighting the regionally varying catastrophe-mitigating effects of specific crops, our study provides valuable insights into the adaptive capacities of human societies to climate variability. This contributes to a more nuanced and context-sensitive understanding of the human-environment nexus.

Spatio-temporal evolution characteristics and influencing factors of traditional villages in the Qiantang River Basin based on historical geographic information

Traditional villages are vital carriers of rural cultural heritage. Examining traditional villages’ distribution and relationships with environments from a historical-geographical perspective can support holistic preservation and adaptive utilization of regional cultural heritage. This study analyzes the spatio-temporal distribution and influencing factors of 595 traditional villages in the Qiantang River Basin by constructing a historical geographic information database. Results reveal:(1) A distinct clustered spatial pattern characterized by two core density zones and a linear aggregation belt along the Qiantang River. (2) The overall spatial development sequence follows a pattern from the northwest to the southeast and then to the southwest, peaking in the Song Dynasty with extensive distribution. (3) Natural factors dominated village formation, with elevation consistently influential across periods, becoming pivotal during the Ming and Qing dynasties. Human factors gained prominence post-establishment. This study clarifies the relationship between the evolution of traditional villages and the historical–geographical context of the Qiantang River Basin, expanding cognitive perspectives on the spatial characteristics of traditional villages.

Reconstruction of Cropland for the Rikaze Area of China Since the Tubo Dynasty (AD 655)

The reconstruction of cropland across historical periods offers valuable insights into the relationship between climate change and human–environment interactions. By extracting key demographic and tax revenue data from historical documents, we estimated cropland data during the Tubo, Yuan, Ming, and Qing dynasties for the Rikaze area in China. Subsequently, according to the characteristics of cropland fragmentation in the Rikaze area, we employed geographically weighted regression (GWR) to reconstruct the 1 km × 1 km cropland cover datasets across the four dynasties for the Rikaze area. The findings are as follows. The amount of cropland showed that the change in cropland in the Rikaze area in the four periods was extremely high, which reflects the great instability of cropland in the Rikaze area. Under the combined action of social unification, cropland production policies, and a suitable climate, the Tubo dynasty was the most significant period of cropland development in the Rikaze area, with the area of cropland reaching 591,927 mu. However, under the influence of the nomadic regime and harsh climate in the Yuan dynasty, the cropland area was sharply reduced, reaching only 18,338 mu. During the Ming and Qing dynasties, the cropland area increased steadily, reaching 200,000 mu and 547,000 mu, respectively. The spatial distribution of cropland shows that the cropland in the Rikaze area is mainly distributed in the middle reaches of the Yarlung Zangbo River, the middle and lower reaches of the Nianchu River, and the Pengqu River Valley. Counties and districts with better agricultural conditions, such as Jiangzi, Bailang, and Renbu, are the main concentration areas of cropland in the Rikaze area. The overall spatial distribution pattern of cropland shows fragmented distribution along rivers, highlighting the characteristics of valley cropland. The research in this paper represents the active exploration of the reconstruction of cropland distribution under complex terrain conditions.

Chronological classification of Ming and Qing dynasty ceramics images based on an enhanced ResNet50 model

ABSTRACT To overcome the limitations of expert-dependent and conventional methods in Ming-Qing ceramic chronology analysis, we propose an enhanced ResNet50 model that integrates dual attention mechanisms (channel and self-attention) to amplify discriminative visual features. A reliable dataset of Ming and Qing ceramics was constructed for training and evaluation. Experimental results show that the improved “Ours” model achieves 94.75% accuracy on the test set, a 2.88% improvement over ResNet50, and outperforms advanced models such as VGG16, DenseNet121, and MobileNetV2. Cross-dataset validation indicates that the method shows excellent generalizability for both ceramic type classification and the chronological categorization of other archaeological artifacts. These findings demonstrate that the integration of both channel and self-attention mechanisms effectively resolves the visual feature differences in Ming and Qing ceramics, providing reliable technical support for the digital preservation of cultural heritage. The source code is publicly available at https://github.com/ZhouAlone/ceramic/.

Shanxi-Shaanxi Merchants, Bangzi Opera and the Cult of Guan Gong on the Lu Canal in the Ming and Qing Dynasties

Regarding the Grand Canal from Beijing to Hangzhou, it was not only a transportation route for transporting grain from the south to the north, commercial travel, and water conservancy irrigation, but it was also a cultural belt that integrates the diverse regional cultures of Qi-Lu, Yan-Zhao, Chu-Han, Huai-Yang, and Wu-Yue. Over the span of five and a half centuries, merchants from Shanxi and Shaanxi exerted a profound influence along the canal during the Ming and Qing dynasties (1368-1912). Taking the Lu Canal, also known as Huitong River in Shandong as a research thread, this paper explored the cultural and commercial activities of Shanxi and Shaanxi merchants who established guild halls, set up theatres, and worshipped the God of Guan along the canal during the Ming and Qing dynasties. These activities not only facilitated the spread of the clapper theatre, but also promoted the widespread inheritance of the worship of Guan Gong, further consolidating the cultural influence of the Shanxi and Shaanxi merchant clans. By studying these phenomena, this paper revealed how Shan-Shaanxi merchants connected commerce and culture through guild culture, enriching the social and cultural heritage along the Lu Canal.

Favorable geopolitical conditions rather than climate promoted societal development in historical Xinjiang region, China

The contemporary renaissance of the ancient Silk Road through China’s Belt and Road Initiative has brought Xinjiang—a pivotal hub along this historic trade corridor—worldwide attention. This resurgence highlights a critical academic lacuna: despite the profound significance of the past social development in Xinjiang in comprehensively understanding Chinese history, the key factors governing its long-term social evolution remain unclear. Such limitation is probably constrained by fragmented frontier historical records and the lack of comprehensive quantitative analyses integrating socio-natural systems. This study innovatively employs multi-proxy historical records from 200 BCE to 1912 CE, in particular systematically categorized warfare data, using Pearson’s correlation, multivariate regression modeling, and Granger causality analyses at annual resolution. Our findings reveal that the historical social development in the Xinjiang region is fundamentally driven by favorable geopolitical situation rather than pleasant climate, especially during the unified administrations of the Han, Sui-Tang, and Qing dynasties. Specifically, while climatic factors exhibit limited correlation and almost no causation with (geo-)political and socio-demographic dynamics, three distinct causal chains are identified with different war types: (1) central government-initiated military campaigns (primary focus of this study), (2) local rebellions, and (3) external/nomadic invasions. Regression models indicate that garrison reclamation is the most influential predictor, with 1-unit increase corresponding to around 0.8-unit growth in agricultural immigration ( β = 0.8), substantially exceeding the impacts of central government-waged war ( β = 0.16), institutional establishment ( β = 0.52), and agriculturalist immigration ( β = 0.38) when garrison reclamation serves as the dependent variable. These results establish a coherent framework explaining the social dynamics in the Xinjiang region over the past two millennia, and offer an empirically-grounded historical case for the sustainable development in current Xinjiang under climate change as well as valuable supplements and new insights into the simplistic perspective of climatic-environmental determinism.

The Dissemination Practice of Shixianshu in the Western Regions during the Qing Dynasty

The dissemination and implementation of Shixianshu (the official almanac) in the Western Regions during the Qing Dynasty is a typical example of the cross-regional spread of Central Plains calendrical culture. This article takes the multilingual Shixianshu as the starting point and, combined with archival materials and physical relics, systematically examines the westward dissemination path of the calendar and its cultural shaping of Western Regions society. By simultaneously publishing Shixianshu in Manchu, Chinese, and Mongolian languages, it not only carried cultural symbols such as the twenty-four solar terms and agricultural time sequences of the Central Plains but also accommodated the monthly-order traditions of nomadic tribes, forming a cross-cultural dialogue pattern of “one calendar integrating three customs”. From the Hami Oasis, where farming was arranged according to the solar terms, to the Ili River Valley, where herders selected grazing areas by observing celestial phenomena, Shixianshu reconstructed the daily life rhythms of the people in the Western Regions based on scientific data. The concurrent use of the “Kitchen God” calendar paintings and the official almanac further promoted the in-depth integration of the Han cosmology and the folk customs in the Huijiang region. This process reveals that the dissemination of the calendar during the Qing Dynasty, through the “technology-symbol” dual-coding strategy, transformed the time order into a cultural integration bond, constructing a shared time-cognition framework for diverse ethnic groups. Its multi-modal text strategy still has implications for contemporary cross-cultural communication.

Integrating metabolomics and network pharmacology to investigate Mu Jin Powder prevents ethanol-induced gastric ulcer in rats.

Integrating metabolomics and network pharmacology to investigate Mu Jin Powder prevents ethanol-induced gastric ulcer in rats.

시대별 비보풍수의 활용과 논리의 변화

This study aims to organize and analyze the various complements presented in Fengshui books and by Fengshui masters. Different terms related to human-made complements frequently appear in these texts, including Wei(爲), Caicheng(裁成), Caijian(裁剪), Zaozuo(造作), Facai(法裁), Gongli(工力), Rengong(人工), Jiancai(剪裁), and Renzuo(人作). Among these, Caicheng is the most significant as it means planning, cutting, and making. This term originated from the Overall Image of Tai Hexagram(泰卦象傳) in the Book of Changes. Over time, these human-made complements have evolved, and the expression methods have expanded and diversified. Numerous Fengshui books, such as Cheong-o-gyeong(靑烏經), Geumnang-gyeong(錦囊經), Seolsim-bu(雪心賦), Balmi-ron(發微論), Jirisinbeop(地理新法), Tak-ok-bu(琢玉斧), Injasuji(人子須知), and sanbeopjeonseo(山法全書), illustrate these terms and methods. Notably, Xu Zhimo(徐之莫) from the Ming Dynasty and Meng Tianji(孟天基) from the Qing Dynasty embraced the arguments presented in Seolsim-bu and further developed them. As a result, the terms and methods related to complements have been introduced and refined across various Fengshui texts, indicating a continuous evolution in this field.

A Brief Discussion of Changing Temperament Which is the Core of Zhang Bingzhi’s Cultivation Theory and Efforts

Zhang Bingzhi, as a Qing Dynasty scholar of science, emphasized work in his thought and presented a distinctive color of science. In Zhang Bingzhi’s rationalist thought, the concept of “rationality and qi” provides a metaphysical basis for human nature and destiny, and provides a basic explanation for the principle of the development of the world’s movement. “The theory of cultivations and efforts, on the other hand, takes the “theory of qi” as its foundation, the “theory of heart” as its basis, and the “theory of destiny” as its guide. It explores how to realize the Divine Principle and how to “know one’s destiny as the beginning” and then “attain one’s destiny” in the process of the operation of reason and mind. Zhang Bingzhi’s theory of cultivations and efforts is centered on “changing temperaments”; he regards “changing temperaments” as the means and goal of scholars’ cultivation efforts, and regards “setting ambitions” as a means of “changing temperaments” and a goal of scholars’ cultivation efforts. He regarded “changing temperament” as the means and goal of scholars’ cultivation efforts, and regarded “establishing the will” as the starting point of “changing temperament” and “single-minded conviction” and “cultivation of mind” as the guarantee of “changing temperament”. His emphasis on “changing temperament” established the basic tendency of “work” as the main focus of his scientific thought, and revealed the basic theoretical characteristics of his emphasis on work in the already developed.

The Politics of Pseudotranslation: Constructing Viewing China through a Third Eye as a Foreign Perspective in Post-1949 China

Pseudotranslation in China has a long history, yet such a phenomenon in Chinese contexts is seldom presented. Currently, most of the reported cases are associated with the Buddhist scripture translation in the medieval period or the scientific and literary translation in the late Qing dynasty, a period of radical social transformation. However, pseudotranslation has been barely noticed in the socialist context after the founding of the New China. While this paper holds that pseudotranslation serves for different purposes as the social situation changes, the authors select Viewing China through a Third Eye, a pseudotranslation once inviting many controversies, to support this argument.

The Essentials of Zhang Bingzhi’s Theory of Cultivations and Efforts

Zhang Bingzhi, a late scholar of Guanxue in the Qing Dynasty, based on Zhu Zi’s theory of human nature, indicated that “temperament is exhausting” and proposed that “changing temperament should be the first thing to do in the beginning of learning”. Moreover, it also combines “changing temperament” with Cheng Zhu’s “advocated principles of self-control and extension of knowledge” and develops it from both internal and external, dynamic and static aspects, reflecting Guan Xue’s inheritance and integration of Zhu Zi’s work. However, compared to “no stirrings”, Zhang Bingzhi emphasizes the need to work on what has been stirred at all times and in all places, reflecting the characteristic of “emphasis on practice”.

The Protection and Development Utilization of Architectural Paintings in Beijing's Imperial Gardens

The history of traditional architectural painting in ancient China is long and storied. Its existence not only enhances the aesthetic appeal of buildings but also serves to protect and extend the lifespan of wooden structures. The Ming and Qing dynasties represent the pinnacle of architectural painting development, during which the variety of paintings became more diverse, and the craftsmanship reached unprecedented heights. This paper primarily focuses on the major imperial gardens in the Beijing area during the Ming and Qing periods, analyzing the relationship between architectural paintings and garden structures, exploring their cultural significance and social value. Based on the achievements and issues revealed during their preservation, the paper offers insights and recommendations for the revitalization and utilization of related cultural heritage.

A Multi-modal Analysis of the Impact of Subtitle Translation in the American Version of "Empresses in the Palace" on Cultural Dissemination

In the context of globalization, the rise of Chinese historical dramas on the world stage offers rich material for studying the multi-modal role of subtitle translation, exemplified by the American version of "Empresses in the Palace." This paper delves into the impact of subtitle translation strategies on cultural dissemination within this drama using multi-modal theory. The drama, set against the backdrop of the imperial harem of the Qing Dynasty, chronicles the growth of Zhen Huan. Following its success in Asia, adjustments were made to the American version to align with the viewing preferences of American audiences. Through multi-modal analysis, it is revealed that within the visual modality, costumes and settings facilitate translation comprehension. In the auditory modality, synchronization challenges need addressing, while the voice characteristics of characters influence subtitle choices. Furthermore, translators must prioritize cultural differences when considering the interplay between textual and cultural modalities. Subtitle translation exerts a positive influence on cultural dissemination, facilitating the promotion of traditional Chinese culture, the spread of the Mandarin language, and the fostering of cultural self-confidence. Nevertheless, this study acknowledges its limitations. Future research endeavors can further advance the globalization of Chinese culture by deepening the exploration of cultural elements, broadening the sample scope, and incorporating quantitative analysis.

Extraction of textiles patterns regularities in Qing Dynasty court women’s Changyi based on grounded coding theory

Current research on traditional textile patterns often relies on visual interpretation and personal experience, leaning more toward sensory cognition rather than rational analysis. To more scientifically explore, understand, and follow the regularities of traditional textile patterns, this study first focuses on Qing Dynasty court women’s Changyi (court robes) as the research subject, constructing a multi-dimensional feature model based on grounded coding theory. Subsequently, employing association analysis, we systematically extract the combination regularities of textile patterns and reveal the deeper cultural connotations behind these regularities. Finally, we validate the effectiveness and practicality of these textile pattern combination regularities through a visual sensory quantitative evaluation method. The evaluation results demonstrate that the Changyi textile patterns extracted using this research method achieve high-grade visual effect ratings, better aligning with contemporary consumer demands. This study provides a rational analysis and scientific foundation for the modern transformation of Chinese traditional textile pattern heritage, not only enriching the theory and methodology of textile pattern research but also holding significant implications for the inheritance of Chinese traditional patterns and the modern adaptation of Chinese traditional clothing.

Striving ascetics or vengeful martyrs? Militant pietism and death-related practices among Jahriyya Muslims of Northwest China

ABSTRACT This paper draws on emic sources from the post-Mao Islamic revival (early 1980s to mid-2010s) to examine the remembrance of the dead in Jahriyya Sufism—a Chinese sectarian offshoot of the Yemeni Naqshbandi tradition whose shaykhs were executed in the wake of the 18th and 19th century rebellions against the Qing dynasty (1644–1912). It delves into the practice of memorializing martyrs in light of broader trends in classical and modern Sufism, with particular attention paid to self-purification (Ar. tazkiyah al-nafs) and other ascetic ideas that inform such a practice. The paper will address two core questions: Can the contemplation of death provide a pathway to moral edification? In what ways does the memory of martyrs affect the living practitioners? Anecdotal and documentary evidence of Jahriyya Muslims (i) showing devotion to their shaykhs in acts of extreme piety, or (ii) attending shrine pilgrimages (ziyārah, lit. “visit”) on the shaykhs’ death anniversaries will form the basis for a discussion on how memorial celebrations aid the practitioners’ quest for and experience of fanāʾ fi-l-Allah (“self-annihilation in God”).

Evolutionary advantage of moderate fertility during Ming–Qing China: a unified growth perspective

Evolutionary advantage of moderate fertility during Ming–Qing China: a unified growth perspective