Pure Lead Research Articles

Study on the Volatilization Condensation Law of Pure Metallic Zinc and Lead During Vacuum Distillation

Study on the Volatilization Condensation Law of Pure Metallic Zinc and Lead During Vacuum Distillation

Photo-induced conduction behaviour of chemically synthesized copper- doped lead sulphide hexapod

A hexapod-like structure of pure and copper-doped lead sulphide was synthesized by the chemical bath deposition technique. Subsequently, the synthesized structure was analysed through XRD, FESEM, UV–Vis and FTIR spectroscopy. The UV–Vis spectra showed a band gap exceeding 5 eV, a significant variation from the previously reported values. The investigation encompassed the study of photoconductivity switching behaviour of the samples. The results showed that the exposure to UV illumination substantially increases the photo-current. Also, the Ohmic current-voltage characteristic of the pure sample gets transformed to non-linear in the case of the doped sample. This has been attributed to the formation of intermediate states in the forbidden gap as well as the formation of local junctions between host and dopant atom. The optical switching characteristics of samples were also studied and the decay has been well-fitted with second-order exponential decay. This study is a pioneer investigation of photoconductive traits of copper-doped lead sulphide hexapod-like nanostructures.

Green Method to Prepare Pure δ‐FAPbI3 Crystals for Fabrication of Highly Efficient Perovskite Solar Cells

The production of pure formamidinium lead iodide (FAPbI3) is crucial to ensure high‐efficiency perovskite solar cells and such pure FAPbI3 is obtainable from crystallization process because impurities from the reagents are removable by molecular recognition effect. In addition, it is important to develop a green crystallization process for the production of FAPbI3 single crystals. Via broad screening of chemicals, here, triethylphosphate and acetonitrile are selected as nontoxic solvent and antisolvent, respectively, for the liquid–liquid reaction of FAI and PbI2 and the antisolvent crystallization. The new green crystallization process produces pure δ‐FAPbI3 single crystals, which are applicable to fabricate α‐FAPbI3 perovskite solar cells. Due to the reduced trap states in the δ‐FAPbI3 single crystals, the corresponding α‐FAPbI3 perovskite solar cells have 22.61% efficiency (average = 20.65 ± 0.86% across 50 devices) and show good operational stability under continuous 1 sun illumination at 50 °C for 1000 h.

Synthesis and characterization of Lead–Nickel–Boron nanocomposite for radiation shielding application

We have synthesized the Lead–Nickel–Boron (LNB) nanocomposite using Green synthesis approach for the first time. LNB is synthesized by solution combustion method using Alovera as a reducing agent. The released combustion products do not affect the environment to a greater extent resulting in less air pollution compared to that of chemical synthesis. The synthesized nanocomposite is characterized using various techniques such as PXRD, SEM, UV–Vis and FTIR spectroscopy. The non-spherical shape of the nanocomposite has been confirmed through SEM images. XRD & FTIR studies reveal the physical and chemical structure of the compound. Both experimental and theoretical approach were used to study the gamma shielding ability of the nanocomposite and its efficiency is comparable to that of pure lead. The value of mass attenuation coefficient of the LNB nanocomposite is found to be 0.44, 0.36, 0.13, 0.10, 0.06, 0.06 cm2/g for 0.276, 0.356, 0.511, 0.661, 1.173 and 1.332 MeV gamma rays. Highest attenuation coefficient and lowest HVL (half value layer-the thickness of any given material where 50% of the incident energy has been attenuated) values are observed at 0.276MeV gamma ray energy. Thus proving excellent efficiency in attenuating low energy gamma rays. It is evident from the results of high neutron absorption cross section and scattering length of value 8.5fm which is comparable to that of Lead. Thus, LNB nanocomposite has also proved to be efficient in absorbing neutrons as well as Bremsstrahlung radiation and neutron shielding efficiency is better than that of lead thus acting as a good neutron absorber. Hence, LNB nanocomposite is efficient and environmental friendly material which can absorb multiple radiations like X/Gamma rays, neutrons and Bremsstrahlung radiation.

Component Distribution Regulation in Sn-Pb Perovskite Solar Cells through Selective Molecular Interaction.

Tin-lead (Sn-Pb) perovskite solar cells (PSCs) with near-ideal bandgap still lag behind the pure lead PSCs. Disordered heterojunctions caused by inhomogeneous Sn/Pb ratio in the binary perovskite film induce large recombination loss. Here, an Sn-Pb perovskite film is reported with homogeneous component and energy distribution by introducing hydrazine sulfate (HS) in Sn perovskite precursor. HS can form hydrogen bond network and coordinate with FASnI3 thus no longer bond with Pb2+ , which reduces the crystallization rate of tin perovskite to the level of lead analog. The strong bonding between SO4 2- and Sn2+ can also suppress its oxidation. As a result, the Sn-Pb PSCs with HS exhibit a significantly improved VOC of 0.91 V along with a high efficiency of 23.17%. Meanwhile, the hydrogen bond interaction network, strong bonding between Sn2+ and sulfate ion also improve the thermal, storage, and air stability of resulting devices.

The effects of saline water on the recovery of lead and zinc sulfide during froth flotation

In this study, we investigated the effects of water salinity on the flotation performance of pure lead and zinc sulfide mineral samples as well as a Pb/Zn complex sulfide ore by means of micro-flotation and batch flotation experiments. Our results showed higher PbS and ZnS recoveries in more concentrated NaCl salt solutions. The results for the experiments using seawater demonstrated that in the presence of additional ions, such as Ca2+ and Mg2+, the recovery of PbS and ZnS was significantly reduced.As part of this investigation, we developed and implemented a surface complexation model for ZnS based on the presence of two differently charged surface sites. Zeta potential measurements of ZnS particles were used to optimise the parameters of our model. It was found that the surface potentials calculated using this model were in good agreement with the experimental zeta potentials, validating the model for predicting the zeta potential behaviour of ZnS particles over a broad range of pH and NaCl concentrations.Additionally, total interaction free energies were determined as a function of separation distance, representing particle–particle and particle-bubble interactions of our study in different NaCl concentrations. The theoretical analyses showed that asymmetric Pb/Zn particle–particle interactions were repulsive at lower NaCl concentrations, before becoming purely attractive at higher NaCl concentrations. For the case of the symmetric particle–particle interactions, attraction controlled all interactions, regardless of NaCl concentration. The calculated PbS-bubble interactions were repulsive in lower NaCl concentrations but became increasingly attractive in higher NaCl concentrations. Strong repulsions controlled all ZnS-bubble interactions, and these interactions remained repulsive with increasing NaCl concentration. The theoretical projections presented in this study were in good agreement with the measured saline water flotation phenomena.

Dynamic surface stress field of the pure liquid-vapor interface subjected to the cyclic loads.

We demonstrate a methodology for computationally investigating the mechanical response of a pure molten lead surface system to the lateral mechanical cyclic loads and try to answer the following question: how does the dynamically driven liquid surface system follow the classical physics of the elastic-driven oscillation? The steady-state oscillation of the dynamic surface tension (or excess stress) under cyclic load, including the excitation of high-frequency vibration mode at different driving frequencies and amplitudes, was compared with the classical theory of a single-body driven damped oscillator. Under the highest studied frequency (50GHz) and amplitude (5%) of the load, the increase of in (mean value) dynamic surface tension could reach ∼5%. The peak and trough values of the instantaneous dynamic surface tension could reach (up to) 40% increase and (up to) 20% decrease compared to the equilibrium surface tension, respectively. The extracted generalized natural frequencies seem to be intimately related to the intrinsic timescales of the atomic temporal-spatial correlation functions of the liquids both in the bulk region and in the outermost surface layers. These insights uncovered could be helpful for quantitative manipulation of the liquid surface using ultrafast shockwaves or laser pulses.

Simulation of steel corrosion and iron yield in LFR with lead coolant

Liquid lead is the main coolant of the fourth generation of advanced nuclear energy system — lead cooled fast reactor (LFR), due to its good neutron economy, high heat transfer performance, stable chemical properties, constant low melting point, high boiling point, etc. Although there are many advantages, the corrosion of metal materials in liquid lead is one of the decisive factors restricting the development of lead cooled fast reactor. In this study, an engineering model for simulating the oxide film growth in liquid lead coolant is established, and the time-dependence of steel flux is analyzed based on the experimental data in the literature. The effects of circuit temperature, hydraulic diameter of section simulated, coolant velocity and steel types on the steel corrosion were investigated. The results showed that the oxide film formed on the steels is of micron grade and the diffusion yield of iron produced in pure lead coolant is of kilogram grade after ten years’ corrosion. The temperature and the coolant velocity have significant effects on the steel corrosion while the effect of hydraulic diameter is mild. Also, the steel types affect the growth of oxide film. The findings provide basic data for the evaluation of radioactive corrosion products of LFR.

Infrared Spectroscopy Study of Pure Oxides PbO, SnO2 and their Comparison

Nanocrystals of semiconducting metal oxides have attracted great interest due to their interesting properties. Therefore, our study came to some physical properties of pure tin oxide and pure lead oxide. Infrared spectral measurements of pure tin and lead oxides showed the presence of vibrational frequencies containing five frequencies for tin oxide and nine vibrational frequencies for lead oxide. The permeability spectra of the SnO2 and PbO compounds were measured, and we calculated each of n, A α , σopt and it was found through the comparison of these amounts for the two compounds that the optical conductivity = 1.214687 (Ωcm)-1, n=9.949 A=2, α=46 cm-1, All previous values are in agreement with the same vibrational frequency of υ = 3450 cm-1 for the lead oxide compound, which is the highest possible.

Synthesizing and characterization of Lead Halide Perovskite Nanocrystals solar cells from reused car batteries

With the rapid increase of efficiency up to 23.7% during the past few years, hybrid organic-inorganic metal halide perovskite solar cells (PSCs) have become a research “hot spot” for many solar cell researchers. The perovskite materials show various advantages due to unique characteristics of perovskite materials, such as high photo-to-electric conversion efficiency, direct band gap, high light absorption coefficient, high charge-carrier mobility and long electron-hole electron transport distance. The low-cost fabrication techniques together with the high efficiency makes PSCs comparable with Si-based solar cells. This paper begins with the discussion of crystal structures of perovskite based on recent research findings. The following part of this paper discussion of synthetic process of lead iodide perovskite materials from lead-acid battery and Harvesting material from the anodes and cathodes of car battery; synthesizing PbI2 from the collected materials and compare with pure Lead iodide to know the absolute by XRD peak, depositing lead iodide perovskite nanocrystals. Efficient flexible PSCs are fabricated onto FTO glass substrate by a two-step coating method under ambient condition. By adjusting the concentration of precursor CH3NH3I (MAI), the morphology and thickness of perovskite layer is effectively tailored, according to SEM analysis and using TiO2 as electron transport layer instead of ZnO and CuI instead of spiro-OMeTAD as hole transport layer.

Renewal of Lead Battery Electrodes Using a Plasma—Chemical Processing Method

The increasing use of renewable energy sources increases the need for electricity storage systems. In this work, the possibility of renewing worn-out battery Pb electrodes by applying Ar and O2 gas plasma in a magnetron vacuum system was investigated. As shown by the SEM results of the surface of Pb electrodes, after exposure to O2 plasma, the surface of Pb electrodes consists of irregularly shaped microstructures. Analyzing the XRD results revealed that the spectrum peaks of the Pb4O3SO4 compound are more pronounced in the case of the electrodes of the worn battery than those electrodes that were exposed to Ar and O2 gas plasma. It was observed that the process of renewing Pb electrodes in Ar and O2 plasma has a positive effect. This effect is also confirmed by the results of EDS studies, as the chemical compounds that inhibit the charge/discharge process are reduced, and the percentage of pure lead increases from 68.2% (in the case of worn electrodes) to 81–82% (when the worn electrodes were processed using Ar and O2 plasma).

Experimental characterization of cyclic behaviour of pure lead: Temperature sensitivity and strain-rate effects

Proton beam pulses with an energy of 20 GeV/c collide with a pure-lead based target installed in the neutron Time-Of-Flight facility (n_TOF) at the European Laboratory for Particle Physics (CERN). The interaction between the proton beam and lead produces neutrons via spallation mechanism and results in a rapid temperature increase and propagation of stress waves. To evaluate the material response in such challenging conditions, a reliable thermo-mechanical characterization is necessary for the calibration of an appropriate constitutive model for pure lead that is valid under cyclic plasticity and high temperature. In this work, the experimental bases for the development of such constitutive material description are lied. Starting with metallurgical characterization, the typical grain size of the material was initially investigated as well as any variations in the metallurgical features. The grains appeared to have an equivalent size ranging from 2 to 6 mm. Then, static tensile tests were conducted at room temperature and different strain-rates from 10−1 to 10−4 s−1. The obtained results were crucial for optimizing the specimen geometry and test setup for the subsequent cyclic tests. Tension-compression cyclic tests were performed at different strain amplitudes from 0.1 to 1.5%, and at three different temperatures (room temperature, 90 °C and 150 °C). The strain amplitudes were controlled by an extensometer and the strain field evolution during the test was recorded by means of 2D DIC.

The influence of melt composition, liquidus temperature and solidus temperature on vapour explosions in melt droplet impingement experiments

For the investigation of vapour explosions, droplet impingement experiments were performed with the binary system Pb–Sn and the pseudo-binary system PbS–Cu2S. The experiments were performed with a melt at 600 °C (Pb–Sn) or 700 °C (PbS–Cu2S) and a water bath at ambient temperature and pressure. A hydrophone and a high-speed camera were used to study the interaction and from this data, the explosion probability and intensity were determined.The explosion probability had a single minimum around 70 wt% Sn, close to the eutectic composition. Moreover, the explosion probability increased approximately linearly with changing composition towards the pure melts, and was similar for pure tin and pure lead. On the other hand, the explosion intensity was comparable for tin and the eutectic alloy while clearly lower for lead. Almost all intermediate alloys had a reduced explosion intensity.Based on the variation in composition, the effects of the liquidus or solidus temperature and the liquidus-solidus gap on the explosion behaviour were also investigated. The explosion probability in both systems increased with increasing liquidus temperature. Also, the maximum explosion intensity in the Pb–Sn system increased with increasing liquidus temperature. Both could be related to easier triggering due to (partial) solidification. On the other hand, the explosion intensity was found to decrease with increasing gap between liquidus and solidus temperature, as was also found in literature. No significant trends for the explosion intensity were found for experiments with PbS–Cu2S.

Synthesis of tungsten-doped PbI2 nanostructure

Facile synthesis of the microwave was applied to assist in synthesizing pure and tungsten-doped lead iodide (W: PbI2) nanosheets with less than 100 nm thickness. The proposed W-doped PbI2 nanosheets were subjected to various characterization, including structural, morphological, spectral, optical, dielectric, and radiation studies. SEM and EDX investigations confirmed that the tungsten dopants affect the undoped PbI2 matrix. The structural morphology from XRD patterns approved the good crystallinity of the prepared W-doped PbI2 nanostructures. Optical characterizations revealed the energy band structure of the grown materials. The dielectric constant of the W-doped PbI2 nanostructures varied from 23 to 31, confirming the increasing dielectric trend with increasing W doping concentrations. The Gamma linear absorption coefficient value was found to vary between 9.2 and 15 in case Am-241, suggesting various applications in radiation detectors for the prepared W-doped PbI2 nanostructured sheets.

Gamma-ray attenuation parameters of HDPE filled with different nano-size and Bulk WO3

High-density polyethylene (HDPE) was obtained through a compression molding technique, and incorporated with different filler weight fractions (0, 10, 15, 25, and 35%) of bulk WO3, and two different WO3 nanoparticle sizes (45 nm and 24 nm). The radiation attenuation ability of the new category of polymer composite HDPE/WO3 was evaluated using gamma-ray energies ranging from 59.53 up to 1332.5keV of four radioactive sources 241Am, 133Ba, 137Cs, and 60Co. The mass attenuation coefficients μm, the total molecular cross-section σmol, the effective atomic cross-section σatom, the total electronic cross-section σel, the effective atomic number Zeff, electron density Neff, the half value layer (HVL), the tenth value layer (TVL), and the relaxation length were investigated. The obtained results of the gamma-ray attenuation parameters exhibited an outstanding influence of the size and weight fraction of WO3 filler on the gamma-ray shielding ability of the HDPE composite. A significant improvement was detected at low gamma-ray energies. The HVL of the synthesized HDPE composites is compared with that of pure lead as a conventional shielding material. HDPE composite filled with the smaller size of WO3 nanoparticle shows good improvement in the attenuation parameters, which suggests promising applications in radiation protection and gamma-ray shielding.

Lanthanum plumbide as a new neutron multiplier material

A new neutron multiplier based on lanthanum plumbide LaPb3 was produced using two different casting methods. The argon-arc melted material consists of LaPb3 dendrites between grains of LaPb2 phase of approximately equal volume fraction. The induction melted material is composed primarily of large LaPb3 grains, about 80 μm in size. Corrosion testing at 20 and 300 °C in air revealed the rapid degradation of LaPb3 without the formation of a protective passivation layer. The corrosion process results in significant volumetric expansion accompanied by cracking. When LaPb3 is exposed to air at 500 °C, pure lead as a corrosion product melts to form layers protecting against rapid corrosion. LaPb3 showed low (113–193 MPa), but sufficient strength for functional use in the temperature range of 20–500 °C.

INFLUENCE OF THE MAGNETIC FIELD WITH AN INDUCTION OF 0.4 TL ON THE PLASTIC PROPERTIES OF C2 LEAD

The paper studies the dynamics of deformation characteristics of technically pure C2 lead under the influence of a constant magnetic field with magnetic induction of 0.4 T. Mechanical creep tests were performed, the microhardness of lead samples was measured in the initial state (without the influence of a magnetic field) and under the influence of external magnetic field. Based on the experimental results, creep deformation curves and the dependence of microhardness on the exposure time in a magnetic field are constructed. The stages of creep are determined. A linear stage was identified, at the site of which the creep rate of lead was calculated before and after the application of an external magnetic field. Quantitative changes in the studied characteristics were established. Under the influence of the magnetic field, there was a significant decrease in the creep rate. The relative residual elongation of samples destroyed during creep under the influence of a magnetic field decreased. The initial effect of the influence of a magnetic field with an induction of 0.4 T on the lead microhardness is investigated: the microhardness of the studied samples increases. An increase in the holding time in the magnetic field does not lead to significant changes in the lead microhardness. The maximum magnification is achieved after holding in the magnetic field for 1 hour. The correlation of changes in the creep rate and changes in the microhardness of the material exposed to a magnetic field with magnetic induction of 0.4 T was revealed.

STUDY OF LEAD ACID CHARGING & DISCHARGING CHARACTERISTICS

ABSTRACT:-The lead-acid batteries provide the best value for power and energy per kilowatt-hour; have the longest life cycle and a large environmental advantage in that they are recycled at an extraordinarily high rate. No other chemistry can touch the infrastructure that exists for collecting, transporting and recycling lead-acid batteries.The rechargeable and secondary batteries category includes lead acid batteries. Despite the battery's low energy-to-volume and energy-to- weight ratios, it can deliver higher surge currents. This refers to the fact that lead acid cells have a high power-to-weight ratio. These are the batteries that transform chemical energy into electrical energy by using lead peroxide and sponge lead. Because of the elevated cell voltage levels and low cost, these are commonly used in substations and power systems. Lead Acid batteries are widely used in automobiles, inverters, backup power systems etc. Unlike tubular and maintenance free batteries, Lead Acid batteries require proper care and maintenance to prolong its life. The Lead Acid battery consists of a series of plates kept immersed in sulphuric acid solution. The plates have grids on which the active material is attached. The plates are divided into positive and negative plates. The positive plates hold pure lead as the active material while lead oxide is attached on the negative plates. A completely charged battery can discharge its current when connected to a load. During the process of discharge, the sulphuric acid combines with the active materials on the positive and negative plates resulting in the formation of Lead sulphate. Water is the single most important step in maintaining a Lead Acid battery. The frequency of water depends on usage, charge method and operating temperature. During process, the hydrogen atoms from the sulphuric acid react with oxygen to form water.This results in the release of electrons from the positive plates which will be accepted by the negative plates. This leads to the formation of an electric potential across the battery. The electrolyte in the Lead Acid battery is a mixture of Sulphuric acid and water which has a specific gravity. Specific gravity is the weight of the acid-water mixture compared to equal volume of water. The specific gravity of pure ions free water is 1.

Morphological, structural and mechanical characteristics of laser-treated pure lead

Abstract The impact of high-intensity visible radiation on the morphological, structural, and mechanical characteristics of pure lead has been examined via the irradiation of a continuous-wave diode laser on its samples. SEM and X-ray diffractometers were used to analyze the surface and structural morphology of the irradiated samples. The appearance of the burning effects, redeposition of material, and melt pools were checked after the irradiations in the SEM analysis. On the other hand, through the diffractometric X-ray analysis, the targeted sample’s d-spacing, grain size, and dislocation line density were resolved. To understand the mechanical characteristics of lead, the change in hardness of the materials was tested as a function of exposure duration using the micro-Vickers hardness tester, and the resulting outcomes were compared with those of unirradiated ones. The hardness of lead is enhanced as the exposure time increases, and this is accompanied by a continuous reduction of the grain size.

Wetting and spreading of Pb, Pb-Cu, and Ag-Cu melts on a polycrystalline copper surface with cobalt particles

The specific feature of Cu(Co) solid solutions with a sub-solidus composition involves the formation of submicron-sized cobalt particles on the free surface. In this work, Cu(Co) substrates with cobalt particles on the surface were produced through the annealing of a series of copper-based cobalt solid solutions containing 1–3 at% Co in a hydrogen atmosphere at 1050 °C, leading to the formation of a family of cobalt-based submicron-sized particles with a similar orientation within one grain on the surface. The wetting and spreading of lead and copper-based liquid alloys on the surfaces of these substrates were compared to the wetting of pure copper and pure cobalt. Experiments were conducted via the high-speed video recording of droplet transfer onto the Cu, Co, and Cu(Co) substrates at 400 °C (melt: pure lead), at 850 °C (Pb + 10.3 at% Cu), and at 1070 °C (Cu + 2.5 at% Ag) in a vacuum. The contact angle of the Pb melt on cobalt (46°) differed significantly from the contact angle on copper at 400 °C (32°), while at 850 °C, the wetting for both metals was almost complete (the wetting angles for Cu and Co were 5° and 7°, respectively). The wetting angle for the Cu(Co) solid solution surface with cobalt particles was almost equal to that for pure copper, and the spreading rates were comparable for the two cases. The wetting of the Cu, Co, and Cu(Co) surfaces by the Cu(Ag) melt did not demonstrate any significant differences between the equilibrium contact angles (tending to zero), while the spreading rate differed only slightly. The surface area covered by the particles reached 20%, despite the presence of the particles, which exerted no impact on the contact angle, due to two possible effects: (i) the formation of an adsorbed copper layer on the surface of the cobalt phase confirmed by room-temperature Auger electron spectroscopy, and (ii) the compensation of wetting deterioration by an increase in roughness.