Pure Lead Research Articles

Quantum chemical study of the structure and properties of isotopically pure lead chalcogenides

In the present work the theoretical methods B3LYP/SDD, GGA and BP86/TZ2P were used for quantum-chemical calculations of lead chalcogenides. It is shown that these levels of theory are applicable for assessment of their geometric parameters, Raman and IR spectra and thermodynamic characteristics. It is shown that there are correlations between the experimental and calculated characteristics of lead sulphide, selenide and telluride. The influence of different isotopes of lead, sulphur, selenium and tellurium on the thermodynamic parameters and the Raman spectra for the lead chalcogenides is shown.

Study of a conceptual accelerator driven system loaded with thorium dioxide mixed with transuranic dioxides in TRISO particles

Nuclear spent fuel management is one of the top major subjects in the utilization of nuclear energy. Hence, solutions to this problem have been increasingly researched in recent years. The basic aim of this work is to examine the fissile breeding and transuranic fuel transmutation potentials of a gas cooled accelerator-driven system. In line with this purpose, firstly, the conceptually designed system is optimized by using several target materials and fuel mixtures, from the point of neutronic. Secondly, three different material compositions, namely, pure lead bismuth eutectic (LBE), LBE+natural UO2, and LBE+15 % enrichment UO2, are considered as target material. The target zone is separated to two sub-zones but as one within the other. The outer sub-zone is pure LBE target, and the inner sub-zone is either UO2 or pure LBE target. The UO2 target sub-zone is cooled with helium gas. Finally, the thorium dioxide mixed with transuranic dioxides, discharged from PWR-MOX spent fuel, in pebbles composed of graphite and TRISO-coated spherical fuel particles, is used for breeding fissile fuel and transmuting transuranic fuels. Three different thorium-transuranic mixtures, (Th, Pu)O2, (Th, Cm)O2, (Th, Pu, MA)O2, are examined with various mixture fractions. The packing fractions of the fuel pebbles in the transmutation core and the tristructural-isotropic coated fuel particles in a pebble are assumed as 60 % and 29 %, respectively. The transmutation core is also cooled with a high-temperature helium coolant. In order to produce high-flux neutrons that penetrate through the transmutation core, the target is exposed to the continuous beams of 1 GeV protons. The computations have been carried out with the high-energy Monte Carlo code MCNPX using the LA150 library. The numerical outcomes show that the examined accelerator-driven system has rather high neutronic data in terms of the energy production and fissile fuel breeding.

Effect of hydrostatic pressure and uniaxial strain on the electronic structure ofPb1−xSnxTe

The electronic structure of Pb$_{1-x}$Sn$_{x}$Te is studied by using the relativistic Korringa-Kohn-Rostoker Green function method in the framework of density functional theory. For all concentrations $x$, Pb$_{1-x}$Sn$_{x}$Te is a direct semiconductor with a narrow band gap. In contrast to pure lead telluride, tin telluride shows an inverted band characteristic close to the Fermi energy. It will be shown that this particular property can be tuned, first, by alloying PbTe and SnTe and, second, by applying hydrostatic pressure or uniaxial strain. Furthermore, the magnitude of strain needed to switch between the regular and inverted band gap can be tuned by the alloy composition. Thus, there is range of potential usage of Pb$_{1-x}$Sn$_{x}$Te for spintronic applications.

Quantum chemical study of the structure and properties of isotopically pure lead chalcogenides

Background/Objectives: In the present work the theoretical methods B3LYP/SDD, GGA and BP86/TZ2P were used for quantum-chemical calculations of lead chalcogenides. Methods/Statistical Analysis: Calculations were carried out using a hybrid method of a functional of density of B3LYP, with an exchange functional to Becke В3 and a correlation functional Lee, Wang and Parr (LYP). As a basic condition were used the SDD pseudo potential for an atom of lead and the D95 double-dzeta as the basis for other atoms. To estimate the enthalpy of formation the semi-empirical method PM3 was used. Findings: It is shown that there are correlations between the experimental and calculated characteristics of lead sulphide, selenide and telluride. The influence of different isotopes of lead, sulphur, selenium and tellurium on the thermodynamic parameters and the Raman spectra for the lead chalcogenides is shown. Applications/Improvements: The results suggest that the use of the density functional method in various versions with different functional and basic conditions.

The Earliest Lead Object in the Levant

In the deepest section of a large complex cave in the northern Negev desert, Israel, a bi-conical lead object was found logged onto a wooden shaft. Associated material remains and radiocarbon dating of the shaft place the object within the Late Chalcolithic period, at the late 5th millennium BCE. Based on chemical and lead isotope analysis, we show that this unique object was made of almost pure metallic lead, likely smelted from lead ores originating in the Taurus range in Anatolia. Either the finished object, or the raw material, was brought to the southern Levant, adding another major component to the already-rich Late Chalcolithic metallurgical corpus known to-date. The paper also discusses possible uses of the object, suggesting that it may have been used as a spindle whorl, at least towards its deposition.

Critical scattering of synchrotron radiation in lead zirconate–titanate with low titanium concentrations

Diffuse scattering in the lead zirconate-titanate single crystal with a titanium concentration of 0.7 at % has been studied by the synchrotron radiation scattering method. Measurements have been performed both in the vicinity of the Brillouin zone center and at the M-point. Highly anisotropic diffuse scattering has been revealed in the paraelectric phase near the Brillouin zone center; diffuse scattering anisotropy is similar to that previously observed in pure lead zirconate. The temperature dependence of this diffuse scattering obeys a critical law with T (c) a parts per thousand 480 K. Diffuse scattering in the vicinity of the M-point weakly depends on temperature; this dependence behaves differently at M-points with various indices.

Experimental and Numerical Study of Multi Hole Extrusion Process

The main objective of the present work is the study the experimental and numerical study of multi hole extrusion process for making circular rods. The pure lead is used as extrude material for extrusion. The die consists of 5 holes with 5mm diameter. For prediction work, process has simulated using a Finite Element Method (FEM) code metal forming software DEFORM-3D®. All the experimental work and simulation are done at ambient conditions. The maximum load and maximum ram displacement are calculated for circular rods during the experimental work. From the results, it is noted that the behavior of load vs displacement is almost same for both experimental and numerical study of multi hole extrusion process. This study becomes illustration the behavior of the other tough materials by which one can understand the extrusion behavior of nonferrous materials.

T-bar rolling process with universal and edger mills

Use of T-bars in shipbuilding has increased recently. As T-bars having a web height of at least twice the flange width are generally required in ships, the dimensions of existing hot-rolled T-bars are not suitable. As a result, T-bars for ships are typically fabricated by welding two plates, which is a costly and time-consuming process. To solve this problem, a new rolling method for T-bars using a combination of a universal mill and an edger mill was investigated for the production of T-bars in an actual production line. Finite element analyses of universal and edger rolling were executed to investigate the characteristics of rolling deformation including side camber. Next, multi-pass rolling experiments with a universal roughing mill and an edger mill were performed. Although straight pure lead T-bars were obtained, the web heights at the top and tail ends were larger than those of the other part. To manufacture a product with a constant web height over the whole length, side guide plates were applied in universal rolling and additional vertical rolls were applied in edger rolling. Web height deflection was eliminated by this new facility, and an excellent cross section was obtained over the entire length of the rolled T-bar. The results of this research clearly demonstrated the potential of the new rolling process for producing T-bars for ships.

Growth of PbI2 single crystal by the top seed vertical zone melting method

PbI2 is a type of syntectic compound, and its single crystal is one of the room temperature semiconductor nuclear radiation detector materials. A new method for the growth of the PbI2 single crystal is proposed in this article, which was named the top seed vertical zone melting method (TSVZMM), directly from the synthesis of polycrystal with analytically pure lead and iodine, by controlling the decomposition and stratification of the melt and the stoichiometry of the PbI2 crystal. Impurities in the crystal and the coagulating droplets of lead were eliminated during the PbI2 crystal growth process from the top to bottom by TSVZMM. The PbI2 single crystal was successfully grown with the size of Φ15 mm×15 mm, an infrared transmittance of more than 40%, a resistivity of 2×1012 Ω cm magnitude and stoichiometry close to its theoretical value.

Kinetics of the oxidation of Pb-Sr(Ba) alloys in the liquid state

The kinetics of the oxidation of Pb-Sr(Ba) alloys containing up to 1.0 wt % of the alloying component in the liquid state is studied by means of thermogravimetry. The oxidation of the alloys obeys a hyperbolic law. Strontium and barium additives accelerate the oxidation of lead. At 673 K, the true oxidation rate changes from 1.01 × 10-3 kg/(m2 s) for pure lead to 1.31 × 10-3 kg/(m2 s) for alloys with 1.0 wt % of strontium, and the apparent activation energy of alloy oxidation falls from 251.7 kJ/mol for pure lead to 60.2 and 142.9 kJ/mol for alloys with 1.0 wt % of strontium and barium, respectively.

Interface behavior of PbO2 on pure lead and stainless steel as anode for dye degradation

PbO2 films are electrodeposited by the galvanostatic (G) and pulsed current (P) methods on lead and stainless steel (AS30), respectively. They are used as electrodes for electrochemical degradation of Amaranth dye. The scanning electron microscope, atomic force microscope, and X-ray diffraction analyses revealed the dominance of β-PbO2 form in two anodes and the absence of the form tet-PbO and PbSO4 in AS30 substrate that have more amorphous shape and less roughness (200 nm). A poor lead oxide adhesion on AS30 substrate is detected. Cyclic voltammetry results showed that the absence of oxidation peak in the case of AS30/PbO2 anode is related to the oxidation of PbSO4 to β-PbO2. EIS results demonstrated that the pH influences largely PbO2 layer. Concerning E123 degradation, 95 and 91% of color removal (82 and 76% of Chemical oxygen demand removals) were achieved using Pb/PbO2 and AS30/PbO2 anodes, respectively. In this case, current efficiency has kept relatively a high value assuming less energy consumption.

Attenuation efficiency of X-ray and comparison to gamma ray and neutrons in composite metal foams

Abstract Steel–steel composite metal foams (S–S CMFs) and Aluminum–steel composite metal foams (Al–S CMFs) with various sphere sizes and matrix materials were manufactured and investigated for nuclear and radiation environments applications. 316 L Stainless steel, high-speed T15 steel and aluminum materials were used as the matrix material together with 2, 4 and 5.2 mm steel hollow spheres to manufacture various types of composite metal foams (CMFs). High-speed T15 steel is selected due to its high tungsten and vanadium concentration (both high-Z elements) to further improve the shielding efficiency of CMFs. This new type of S–S CMF is called high-Z steel–steel composite metal foam (HZ S–S CMF). Radiation shielding efficiency of all types of CMFs was explored for the attenuation of X-ray, gamma ray and neutron. The experimental results were compared with pure lead and Aluminum A356, and verified theoretically through XCOM and Monte Carlo Z-particle Transport Code (MCNP). It was observed that the radiation shielding effectiveness of CMFs is relatively independent of sphere sizes as long as the ratio of sphere-wall thickness to its outer-radius stays constant. However, the smaller spheres seem to be more efficient in general due to the fine fluctuation in the gray value profile of their 2D Micro-CT images. S–S CMFs and Al–S CMFs are respectively 275% and 145% more effective for X-ray attenuation than Aluminum A356. Compared to pure lead, CMFs show adequate attenuation with additional advantages of being lightweight and more environmentally friendly. The mechanical performance of HZ S–S CMFs under quasi-static compression was compared to that of other classes of S–S CMF. It is observed that the addition of high-Z elements to the matrix of CMFs improved their shielding against X-rays, low energy gamma rays and neutrons, while maintained their low density, high mechanical properties and high-energy absorption capability.

SU-E-I-56: Diagnostic Lead Apron Radiation Exposure Comparison Between Manufacture-Stated and Measurements

Purpose: Several vendors of diagnostic lead apron used routinely in radiology/fluoroscopy claim to manufacture 0.5 mm lead equivalent shielding. The purpose of this investigation was to address the concern of the weight of lead aprons versus the radiation protection they provide. Methods: Seven diagnostic lead aprons were measured and compared for their radiation transmission and attenuation characteristics. The measurements were performed on a Philips Integris. Two settings were used, normal (76 kVp, 14.3 mA) and high (110 kVp, 12.3 mA) to represent typical patient and large patient thickness. Plastic water was placed on the table to represent patient scatter. A Capintec PM-500 ion chamber was placed at approximate chest height where hospital personnel would stand. An uncovered, i.e. lead-unhindered, ion chamber reading was taken to establish the baseline reading of an unprotected personnel. The ion chamber was then wrapped with 0.5mm 99.9% pure Pb material to establish the measurement reading when a diagnostic lead apron attenuates as adequately as 0.5mm Pb. The lead aprons were measured one at a time with the ion chamber fully covered and enclosed within the aprons. Results: On Normal fluoroscopy setting, the 0.5mm pure Pb showed a transmission of 0.4%. No aprons showed a transmissionmore » value as low as 0.5mm Pb. The lowest transmission value measured from the aprons was 2.0%, having a 1.5% higher transmission than pure lead. On High fluoroscopy setting, the lowest apron transmission measurement was at 2.8%, which was comparable to the 0.5mm pure Pb which gave a transmission of 3.0%. Conclusion: At Normal fluoroscopy setting, the 0.5mm Pb provided an attenuation that could not be matched by any apron measured. At High fluoroscopy setting, only one apron exhibited comparable transmission values as 0.5mm pure Pb.« less

Tritium breeding mock-up experiments containing lithium titanate ceramic pebbles and lead irradiated with DT neutrons

Experiments were conducted with breeding blanket mock-up consisting of two layers of breeder material lithium titanate pebbles and three layers of pure lead as neutron multiplier. The radial dimensions of breeder, neutron multiplier and structural material layers are similar to the current design of the Indian Lead–Lithium cooled Ceramic Breeder (LLCB) blanket. The mock-up assembly was irradiated with 14MeV neutrons from DT neutron generator. The local tritium production rates (TPR) from 6Li and 7Li in breeder layers were measured with the help of two different compositions of Li isotopes (60.69% 6Li and 7.54% 6Li) in Li2CO3. Tritium production in the multiplication layers were also measured with above mentioned two types of pellets to compare the experimental tritium production with calculations. TPR from 6Li at one location in the breeder layer was also measured by direct online measurement of tritons from 6Li(n, t)4He reaction using silicon surface barrier detector and 6Li to triton converter. Additional verification of neutron spectra (En>0.35MeV) in the mock-up zones were obtained by measuring 115In(n, n′)115mIn reaction rate and comparing it with calculated values in all five layers of mock-up. All the measured nuclear responses were compared with transport calculations using code MCNP with FENDL2.1 and FENDL3.0 cross-section libraries. The average C/E ratio for tritium production in enriched Li2CO3 pellets was 1.11 in first breeder zone and 1.09 in second breeder zone with uncertainty 8.3% at 1σ level. The experimental details and results are discussed in this paper.

Effect of Indium Alloying with Lead on the Mechanical Properties and Corrosion Resistance of Lead-Indium Alloys in Sulfuric Acid Solution

Effect of indium alloying in various concentrations with lead on both microhardness and crystallite structure of lead-indium alloy was investigated. The corrosion behavior of lead-indium alloys in 4 M H2SO4 acid solution was investigated by Tafel plot and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) methods. The results of both Tafel plot extrapolation and EIS measurements exhibited the same trend. Generally, the corrosion resistance of the alloy is more significant compared with that observed for pure lead. This study shows that the addition of 0.5 pct In to Pb decreases the corrosion. However, with a further increase of alloying In, the corrosion rate of alloy starts to increase up to 5 pct In compared with that of Pb-0.5 pct In alloy. Then the corrosion rate decreases gradually with the increase in the percentage of In up to 15 pct. The values of activation energy (Ea) supported this trend of the corrosion rate which is obtained for Pb and Pb-In alloys. X-ray diffraction data exhibited broadness of peaks, which is due to lattice distortion or grain refinement. Clearly the peaks shift to higher angles for Pb-15 pct In alloy which can be attributed to changes in lattice structure of Pb. Scanning electron microscope images confirmed that the microstructure is changed with indium alloying content. The solute content tends to refine the microstructure array.

The Dual Fluid Reactor – A novel concept for a fast nuclear reactor of high efficiency

The Dual Fluid Reactor, DFR, is a novel concept of a fast heterogeneous nuclear reactor. Its key feature is the employment of two separate liquid cycles, one for fuel and one for the coolant. As opposed to other liquid-fuel concepts like the Molten-Salt Fast Reactor (MSFR), both cycles in the DFR can be separately optimized for their respective purpose, leading to advantageous consequences: A very high power density resulting in remarkable cost savings, and a highly negative temperature feedback coefficient, enabling a self-regulation without any control rods or mechanical parts in the core.In the current reference design the fuel liquid is an undiluted actinide trichloride based on isotope-purified Cl-37, circulating at an operating temperature of 1000°C. It can be processed on-line in a small internal processing unit utilizing fractional distillation or electro refining. Medical radioisotopes like Mo-99/Tc-99m are by-products and can be provided right away. In a more advanced design, an actinide metal alloy melt with an appropriately low solidus temperature is also possible which enables a reduction of the core size and allows a further increase in the operating temperature due to its high heat conductivity.For the reference design, pure Lead as coolant is the best choice. It yields a very hard neutron spectrum, fostering a very good neutron economy and therefore making the DFR a preferred thorium breeder but also a very effective waste incinerator and transmuter. With its high coolant temperature the DFR achieves the same ambitions as the Generation IV concept of the very high temperature reactor (VHTR), with all its advantages like electricity production with high efficiency and the synthesis of carbon-free fuels, but with overall production costs competitive with today’s refined oil.The specific combination of the liquids in the very high temperature regime requires structural materials withstanding corrosive attacks. Because of the small size of the reactor core the utilization of these expensive materials would have no significant impact on the overall energy (and also economic) efficiency, measured by the EROI (Energy Return on Investment), which is more than 20 times higher than for a light-water reactor (LWR).The DFR inherits the positive properties of the lead-cooled reactor (LFR) and of the MSFR, especially its outstanding passive safety features.

In situ synchrotron X-ray diffraction investigation of the evolution of a PbO₂/PbSO₄ surface layer on a copper electrowinning Pb anode in a novel electrochemical flow cell.

This paper describes the quantitative measurement, by in situ synchrotron X-ray diffraction (S-XRD) and subsequent Rietveld-based quantitative phase analysis and thickness calculations, of the evolution of the PbO2 and PbSO4 surface layers formed on a pure lead anode under simulated copper electrowinning conditions in a 1.6 M H2SO4 electrolyte at 318 K. This is the first report of a truly in situ S-XRD study of the surface layer evolution on a Pb substrate under cycles of galvanostatic and power interruption conditions, of key interest to the mining, solvent extraction and lead acid battery communities. The design of a novel reflection geometry electrochemical flow cell is also described. The in situ S-XRD results show that β-PbO2 forms immediately on the anode under galvanostatic conditions, and undergoes continued growth until power interruption where it transforms to PbSO4. The kinetics of the β-PbO2 to PbSO4 conversion decrease as the number of cycles increases, whilst the amount of residual PbO2 increases with the number of cycles due to incomplete conversion to PbSO4. Conversely, complete transformation of PbSO4 to β-PbO2 was observed in each cycle. The results of layer thickness calculations demonstrate a significant volume change upon PbSO4 to β-PbO2 transformation.

Application of the diagnostic radiological index of protection to protective garments.

Previously, the diagnostic radiological index of protection (DRIP) was proposed as a metric for quantifying the protective value of radioprotective garments. The DRIP is a weighted sum of the percent transmissions of different radiation beams through a garment. Ideally, the beams would represent the anticipated stray radiation encountered during clinical use. However, it is impractical to expect a medical physicist to possess the equipment necessary to accurately measure transmission of scattered radiation. Therefore, as a proof of concept, the authors tested a method that applied the DRIP to clinical practice. Primary beam qualities used in interventional cardiology and radiology were observed and catalogued. Based on the observed range of beam qualities, five representative clinical primary beam qualities, specified by kV and added filtration, were selected for this evaluation. Monte Carlo simulations were performed using these primary beams as source definitions to generate scattered spectra from the clinical primary beams. Using numerical optimization, ideal scatter mimicking primary beams, specified by kV and added aluminum filtration, were matched to the scattered spectra according to half- and quarter-value layers and spectral shape. To within reasonable approximation, these theoretical scatter-mimicking primary beams were reproduced experimentally in laboratory x ray beams and used to measure transmission through pure lead and protective garments. For this proof of concept, the DRIP for pure lead and the garments was calculated by assigning equal weighting to percent transmission measurements for each of the five beams. Finally, the areal density of lead and garments was measured for consideration alongside the DRIP to assess the protective value of each material for a given weight. The authors identified ideal scatter mimicking primary beams that matched scattered spectra to within 0.01 mm for half- and quarter-value layers in copper and within 5% for the shape function. The corresponding experimental scatter-mimicking primary beams matched the Monte Carlo generated scattered spectra with maximum deviations of 6.8% and 6.6% for half- and quarter-value layers. The measured DRIP for 0.50 mm lead sheet was 2.0, indicating that it transmitted, on average, 2% of incident radiation. The measured DRIP for a lead garment and one lead-alternative garment closely matched that for pure lead of 0.50 mm thickness. The DRIP for other garments was substantially higher than 0.50 mm lead (3.9-5.4), indicating they transmitted about twice as much radiation. When the DRIP was plotted versus areal density, it was clear that, of the garments tested, none were better than lead on a weight-by-weight basis. A method for measuring the DRIP for protective garments using scatter-mimicking primary beams was developed. There was little discernable advantage in protective value per unit weight for lead-alternative versus lead-only garments. Careful consideration must be given to the balance of protection and weight when choosing a lead-alternative protective garment with a lower specified "lead equivalence," e.g., 0.35 mm. The DRIP has the potential to resolve this dilemma. Reporting the DRIP relative to areal density is an ideal metric for objective comparisons of protective garment performance, considering both protective value in terms of transmission of radiation and garment weight.

Electrochemical Evaluation of Lead Base Composite Anodes Fabricated by Accumulative Roll Bonding Technique

Accumulative roll bonding is used for the first time in lead systems to fabricate advanced lead base composite anodes. For this purpose, Ag as the most common and effective additive, Co as the best metallic immiscible substitution for Ag, and MnO2 as the ceramic and electrocatalytic agent have been used as additives to produce anodes. The accumulative roll bonding processed sheets have been fabricated under determined conditions. The electrochemical properties of the prepared samples are investigated by Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy, Cyclic Voltammetry, Polarization tests, electrowinning tests, and Scanning Electron Microscopy. The results indicate that the ARB-processed composite lead sheets can be perfectly used as novel developed anodes. The advantages include 5.51 times increase of current density, in the Pb-pct0.5Ag 9-pass sample compared to pure lead anode, decreased charge transfer resistance from 56.31 (Ω cm2) in pure lead anode to 17.5 (Ω cm2) in the Pb-pct2MnO2 8-pass sample (72 pct lower), and decreased oxygen evolution potential from 1.95 (V/SHE) in pure lead anode to 1.77 (V/SHE) in the Pb-pct2MnO2 8-pass sample (0.18 (V/SHE) lower). Electrowinning tests results reveal Pb-2 pctMnO2 8-pass showed best anodic performance withsignificant lower compared corrosion rate (75 pct), product and electrolyte contamination, slime formation, energy consumption and higher Zn deposit and energy conservation (to 294 kWh/t-Zn). Finest Zn deposit morphology (effective reduced grain size corresponding to smoothness and compaction) has been supplied by Pb-2 pctMnO2 8-pass sample resulted from enhanced growth rate of Zn in lack of Pb contaminations that could act as suitable nucleation sites.

Investigation of lead base composite anodes produced by accumulative roll bonding

Accumulative roll bonding was applied for the first time to fabricate lead-based composites for use as anodes in electrowinning metal production. For this purpose, Pb–Ag, Pb–Co, and Pb–MnO2 systems were investigated. The newly designed anodes were tested for their mechanical properties and microstructure. Maximum bond strength was gained in the presence of 0.125wt% of MnO2 (2.8N/mm) while lower peel strength was achieved when identical percentages of other additives were added. Compared to pure lead sheet, the mechanical properties of lead base composite sheets processed by accumulative roll bonding improved such that tensile strength rose from 10 to 12.6 (MPa) (126% higher), yield strength from 5 (MPa) to 12.4 (MPa) (240% higher), shear yield strength from 10.1 (MPa) to 14.3 (MPa) (42% higher), and hardness from 9.3 (HV) to 78.6 (HV) (8.4times higher). Furthermore, strain decreased from 60% to 8% in the Pb–2% MnO2 8-pass specimen. These improvements in mechanical properties were accompanied by higher stiffness as well as considerable improvements in dimensional stability of the anodes and better creep characteristics. These changes might have been achieved due to the diminished recovery of specimens subjected to sever plastic deformation in the presence of additive particles. The new properties of the lead base composite anode guarantee a lower anodic decay rate, reduced sludge formation, less bath and production contamination, and reduced maintenance and capital costs in lead anode dependent industries.