Children's Psychological Adjustment Research Articles

Exploring the Impact of Parenting Styles on Children’s Academic and Mental Health

(Objective) This article examines how different parenting styles relate to children's academic and psychological adjustment, focusing on scholastic engagement, persistence, emotional resilience, and stress management. (Method) The study reviews empirical research through the lens of Basic Psychological Need Theory and Self-esteem Theory, analyzing four parenting styles: authoritarian, authoritative, permissive, and uninvolved. (Results) The findings emphasize the importance of academic adjustment for scholastic achievement and psychological adjustment for emotional well-being. The study highlights the need for an encouraging family environment, effective parenting methods, and educational interventions to promote children's academic and psychological development. Further research is required to understand the mechanisms by which parenting styles influence child adjustment.

Sources of Variability in Remote Communication Between Deployed Military Fathers and Their Children

SYNOPSIS Objective. The extents to which external barriers to communication, parental stress and intimacy, child psychological adjustment and age together and uniquely are associated with the frequency and quality of remote communication between deployed military fathers and their children were explored. Findings based on data reported by deployed fathers and at-home mothers were also compared. Design. Survey data were collected from 72 military deployed fathers and their wives/partners about the fathers’ communication with their 4- to 17-year-old children. Questions concerned the frequency and relationship quality of father-child remote communication and hypothesized predictors of communication extracted from the parent-child communication literature. Results. Regression analyses revealed that, as a group, external barriers to communication, parental stress and intimacy, child psychological adjustment and age predicted the quality but not the quantity of father-child remote communication and that lower quality father-child communication as reported by both parents was associated with child externalizing behavior problems. Parental stress was associated with lower father-reported quality of communication, and parental intimacy was associated with higher mother-reported quality of communication. Child older age was associated with father reported lower quality of communication. Conclusions. The quality of deployed father-child communication is associated with parental and child variables known to be associated with father-child communication when parent and child are in the same location, suggesting that interventions for improving co-located father-child relationships may be adaptable for use when military fathers and children are separated.

Relationship of Parental Acceptance-Rejection and Psychological Adjustment in Children and Adolescents with Congenital Heart Disease

Relationship of Parental Acceptance-Rejection and Psychological Adjustment in Children and Adolescents with Congenital Heart Disease

The effect of parental burnout on psychological adjustment among Chinese children with developmental disabilities: the roles of parental autonomy support and psychological control

Objectives Children with developmental disabilities (DD) suffer from adverse psychological adjustment due to parental burnout. The current study aimed to examine how parental burnout affected psychological adjustment in children with DD, and the roles of parental psychological control and autonomy support as mediators. Methods In the current study, 332 Chinese parents of children with DD were investigated using the Chinese versions of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire, Parental Autonomy Support Scale, Psychological Control Questionnaire, Parent Self-Report, and Parental Burnout Assessment. The data analysis approaches included correlation and mediation effect analyses. Results The results indicated that parental burnout was negatively correlated with prosocial behavior and positively correlated with emotional/behavioral problems. Moreover, the mediation analysis showed that the effect of parental burnout on prosocial behavior was mediated by both parental autonomy support and psychological control, whereas the effect on emotional/behavioral problems was mediated by psychological control. Conclusions These findings provide a deeper understanding of the relationship between parental burnout, parental psychological control, autonomy support, and psychological adjustment in children with DD, and provide theoretical guidance and empirical evidence for strategies to improve psychological adjustment in children with DD.

Students’ School and Psychological Adjustment in Classrooms with Positive and Negative Leaders

Positive and negative leadership styles may influence classroom norms and be related to the school and psychological adjustment of children in general, and victims in particular. This study tested the relation between leadership styles and children’s adjustment, and the moderating effects of leadership on the association between self-reported victimization and school and psychological adjustment (self-esteem, social anxiety, and depressive symptoms); and it tested for potential gender differences. Classrooms were classified into those with only positive leaders, only negative leaders, both positive and negative leaders, and without leaders. The sample contained 8748 children (Mage = 10.05, SD = 1.22; 51.2% girls) from 392 classrooms, in grades three to six, in 98 Dutch schools. Multilevel analysis revealed that, in general, children in negative leader classrooms experienced lower school well-being than children in other classrooms. In positive leader classrooms, male and female victims had lower school well-being. For psychological well-being, female victims had lower self-esteem and more depressive symptoms in positive leader classrooms. Male and female victims in negative leader classrooms did not suffer from additional maladjustment. These results demonstrate that negative leadership styles are related to lower school well-being of all children, whereas victimization in classrooms with positive leaders is negatively related to male and female victims’ school well-being and girls’ psychological adjustment (depressive symptoms); this is in line with the ‘healthy context paradox’.

Psychological adjustment of children and adolescents in residential care with Collaborating Families: A multi-informant assessment

In residential care, programs such as Collaborating Families have been developed so that children and adolescents can experience periods of cohabitation in a positive family environment, which generates benefits for them and complements their residential care. The present study used the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) to study the psychological adjustment of 37 children and adolescents in residential care with collaborating families, comparing the assessments of 185 informants: the children themselves, their collaborating families, their caregivers at the protection center, as well as a comparison group of peers without collaborating families and their caregivers. In addition, this study analyzed whether the psychological adjustment of these children is related to some of their personal variables and their experience in family collaboration. The results showed significant differences between the psychological adjustment assessed by the different informants. Also, children with collaborating families tended to present a better psychological adjustment compared to the comparison group, with considerable effect sizes. Moreover, significant relationships were found between psychological adjustment and the children’s ratings about their family collaboration. Finally, some practical implications for the development of the program are discussed. En el marco del acogimiento residencial, se ha desarrollado el programa Familias Colaboradoras con el fin de que los niños, niñas y adolescentes tutelados puedan disfrutar de períodos de convivencia en un ambiente familiar positivo, que les genere beneficios y complemente su atención residencial. En este trabajo, a través del instrumento Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ), estudiamos el ajuste psicológico de 37 menores de edad en acogimiento residencial con familias colaboradoras, contrastando las valoraciones de 185 informantes: los propios menores de edad, sus familias colaboradoras, los profesionales de referencia del centro, así como un grupo de comparación de iguales sin familias colaboradoras y sus profesionales de referencia. Además, analizamos si el ajuste psicológico de estas personas menores se relaciona con variables personales y la valoración que hacen de la colaboración familiar. Los resultados mostraron diferencias significativas entre el ajuste psicológico valorado por los distintos informantes. Además, los menores de edad con familias colaboradoras tendieron a mostrar un mejor ajuste psicológico frente al grupo de comparación, con tamaños de efecto considerables. Se encontraron también relaciones significativas entre el ajuste psicológico y la valoración de los menores sobre la colaboración familiar. Finalmente, se discuten algunas implicaciones prácticas para el desarrollo del programa.

Mother-child reporting discrepancies of child physical abuse: Associations with internalizing and externalizing symptoms

BackgroundMother-child discrepancies frequently occur in reports of child physical abuse. Such report discrepancies raise important challenges for interpreting and integrating data from multiple informants in forensic and clinical settings. ObjectivesThe main goal of this study was to identify patterns of mother-child discrepancies in reporting CPA using latent profile analysis. We then tested differences between profiles on mothers' mental health problems and children's internalizing and externalizing symptoms.Participants and setting.Participants were 159 mother-child dyads with police-documented exposure to intimate partner violence. MethodParticipants were recruited from Child Protective Services and shelter residences from all regions of Portugal. After obtaining informed consent, assessment protocols were administered separately to mothers and children. ResultsWe identified two convergent profiles (mother-child agreement on reports of both high and low exposure to CPA) and one divergent profile (the child reported significantly higher exposure to CPA than the mother). Mothers from the divergent profile reported more depressive and post-traumatic stress symptoms than mothers from the convergent profiles. Children of the divergent profile and one of the convergent profiles (mother-child agreement on high exposure to CPA) showed the highest internalizing and externalizing symptoms. ConclusionsThese results illustrate how examining informant discrepancies in the assessment of abusive parenting practices increases our understanding of children's psychological adjustment in high-risk contexts.

Maternal psychological distress and children's adjustment problems: Mediation by household chaos.

Research over many decades has considered the crucial role of maternal psychological distress (e.g., depression, anxiety) for children's psychological adjustment (externalizing and internalizing problems), suggesting bidirectional influences over time. However, little is known about the extent to which household chaos (e.g., noise, disorganization, lack of calm) may mediate this mutual association, despite an understanding that chaos is a powerful stressor in the home. Conducting secondary data analysis in a large scale, prospective longitudinal study of families with children-the U.K.'s Millennium Cohort Study-we accounted for stability in both maternal psychological distress and children's internalizing and externalizing problems and examined the extent to which household chaos mediated the mutual association between maternal psychological distress and children's behaviors. Using what we term a mutual-mediation model, we found that both maternal psychological distress and children's adjustment problems predicted household chaos at Age 5, and in turn, that chaos predicted maternal psychological distress and child adjustment problems at Age 7. We found a dominance of children's externalizing problems in the prediction of household chaos, and all pathways were strongest for maternal psychological distress and externalizing problems compared to child internalizing problems. Our findings suggest that research would be well-minded to consider both child and parent effects on household chaos, as well as its mediation potential. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Facing Pediatric Rheumatic Diseases: The Role of Disease Activity and Parental Emotion Regulation Strategy in Parents' and Children's Psychological Adjustment.

Pediatric rheumatic diseases (PRDs) are a group of chronic disorders that start in childhood and are characterized by periodic exacerbations and remissions of symptoms, with limitations in family, school, and social activities. The aim of this study was to detect differences in parents' psychological adjustment and emotion regulation strategies, and parent-reported children's adjustments in families of children with active and inactive PRDs. Fifty-four parents (38 mothers and 16 fathers) of children with PRD were recruited from a pediatric unit. Disease activity was evaluated by their pediatric rheumatologist, while parents' depressive and anxiety symptoms, emotion regulation strategies, and children's emotional difficulties and hyperactivity-inattention symptoms were assessed through a web-based survey. Parents of children with active PRDs reported higher levels of their child's emotional difficulties and hyperactivity-inattention symptoms. Linear regression analysis demonstrated that having a child in the active phases of PRD and lower use of cognitive reappraisal lead to higher children's emotional symptoms, while active disease, low use of cognitive reappraisal, and greater expressive suppression were associated with higher hyperactivity-inattention symptoms. Our study highlights that children with PRDs and their parents may be at increased risk for psychological problems, especially during the active disease phase, highlighting the importance of a multidisciplinary approach.

Pre-pandemic family resources and child self-regulation in children's internalizing problems during COVID-19: a multi-level social-ecological framework for emotional resilience.

Children's psychological adjustment to adverse events can be determined by multiple risk and resilience factors. This study explored multi-level protective factors against children's internalizing problems and investigated the mechanism regarding how diverse environmental and child-level resources influence children's mental health in the context of COVID-19. Our participants included a nationally representative sample of 2,619 young children (48.3% girls) and their primary caregivers (95.1% mothers) in Singapore. They were a subset of the participants in the Singapore Longitudinal Early Development Study (SG LEADS). Data were collected over two waves-before the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic (Wave 1) when these children aged 3 to 6, and during the second year of the pandemic (Wave 2). Primary caregivers completed measures of verbal cognitive ability, self-control, economic stress, and positive and negative parental control in Wave 1. Children's self-regulation was assessed by the Delay of Gratification task in Wave 1, and their internalizing problems were rated by their primary caregivers in both waves. Other pre-pandemic family and community characteristics were collected as covariates. Structural equation modeling was performed. Pre-pandemic parental resources (i.e., verbal cognitive ability, self-control, and low economic stress) predicted children's fewer internalizing problems during the pandemic and less aggravation of internalizing problems from before to during the pandemic, through more positive parental control (i.e., limit setting) and less negative parental control (i.e., harsh discipline). Moreover, children's self-regulation during early childhood was predicted by their primary caregivers' verbal cognitive ability and self-control, as well as positive parental control. Early childhood self-regulation further alleviated the aggravation of internalizing problems over time. Among the covariates, parental education, family income, parental psychological well-being, living with both parents, having a live-in domestic helper, and neighborhood quality also longitudinally predicted fewer child internalizing problems. Our findings underscore the importance of nurturing children's emotional resilience under adverse and uncertain circumstances by boosting protective factors in their social-ecological system, including community-, family-, parent-, and child-level resources.

The effect of family capital on psychological adjustment of Chinese children with autism spectrum disorder in the transition from kindergarten to primary school

Purpose: The present study aimed to investigate how different forms of family capital might affect psychological adjustment in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in the transition from kindergarten to primary school. Methods: Participants (n = 221) were recruited using convenience sampling from Beijing, Xiamen, Chongqing, and Lanzhou in China. With the Chinese version of different measurements such as Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire, Family Economic Capital Scale, Family Cultural Capital Scale, Social Capital Scale, and the Questionnaire of Parental Involvement in Transition from Kindergarten to Primary School, the hierarchical linear regression was performed to examine the effect of family capital on psychological adjustment of Chinese children with ASD. Results: The results indicated that monthly household income (B = −0.04, SE = 0.03, p < 0.05), parental educational expectations (B= − 0.07, SE = 0.02, p < 0.01), and parental involvement (B= −0.11, SE = −0.04, p < 0.05) have significantly negative effect on emotional symptoms of children with ASD; monthly household income (B= −0.05, SE = 0.01, p < 0.05) and the strength of social ties (B=−0.09, SE =0.03, p < 0.01) were negatively associated with conduct problems; monthly household income negatively predicted hyperactivity/inattention (B=−0.05, SE = 0.02, p < 0.05); social network ties were negatively correlated with peer problems (B=-0.10, SE = 0.03, p < 0.01); the monthly household income (B = 0.04, SE = 0.02, p < 0.05), parental educational expectations (B = 0.07, SE = 0.03, p < 0.05), parental involvement (B = 0.27, SE = 0.04, p < 0.01), and strength of social ties (B = 0.10, SE = 0.05, p < 0.05) positively affected the prosocial behavior. Conclusion: The present study, from a cross-cultural perspective, revealed the negative associations between family capital variables, including family economic, cultural, and social capital, and the difficult domains of psychological adjustment, as well as the positive associations with prosocial behavior. These contribute to the applicability of the family capital theory to explain psychological adjustment of children with ASD.

The relationship between parental stress and psychological adjustment of the children: The role of parental psychological flexibility as a mediator

There is growing interest in parental psychological flexibility, understood as parents' ability to enjoy an optimal relationship with their children by accepting their negative emotions and thoughts in the present moment, while remaining child-conscious, in value-based parenting. Parenting can sometimes be stressful, especially when faced with the varied and changing challenges of parenthood. Parental stress, in turn, has been related to high levels of psychological inflexibility. So, this study aimed to analyze the relationship of parental psychological flexibility with parental stress and its impact on children's psychological adjustment. The sample consisted of 909 families with children aged 3–18 years who answered the following questionnaires: The Parental Acceptance Questionnaire (6-PAQ), which measures psychological flexibility, the Parental Stress Scale (PSS), and the Strenght and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ), which studies the general psychological state of children and adolescents by screening for emotional and behavioral difficulties. These variables were analyzed by difference analysis according to the level of psychological flexibility, regression analysis, and mediation analysis. The group of parents who scored highest on psychological inflexibility scored high on parental stress and the child psychological adjustment scales, except for the prosocial behavior subscale. The results show that parental psychological inflexibility is related to higher levels of parental stress, and in turn, has an impact on greater psychological maladjustment in children. These relationships are analyzed from their clinical and educational implications as factors and objectives to be incorporated into family intervention.

Perceraian dan Perkembangan Psikologis Anak: Analisis Tematis Temuan Tinjauan Literatur

Purpose – The purpose of this study was to investigate the impact of divorce on children's psychological development, including changes in their behavior, emotional stability, response to stress, and adaptability, and to understand the factors that influence such impacts as social support and parent-child relationships.&#x0D; Methods – This research employing literature review methodology, this study delves into data extracted from pertinent journals, articles, and research studies. The collected data underwent thematic analysis to discern prevalent patterns and themes concerning the ramifications of divorce on children's psychological growth. Key areas of inquiry encompass behavioral shifts, stress levels, and resilience of children in navigating through the aftermath of divorce. Furthermore, this research endeavors to identify factors that may exacerbate or ameliorate these impacts, such as social support and psychological guidance.&#x0D; Findings – The findings of this study underscore that divorce can precipitate psychological effects manifested in alterations in children's behavior, emotional equilibrium, and sense of responsibility. Additionally, children may experience feelings of anxiety, distress, sadness, shame, and bewilderment following divorce. It is anticipated that the insights gained from this study will advance our understanding of the intricate ways in which divorce shapes children's psychological development.&#x0D; Research implications –The findings of this research contribute to theoretical frameworks regarding the psychological impact of divorce on children, shedding light on the nuanced interplay between familial upheaval and children's emotional well-being. This deepened understanding enhances existing theories of child development and family dynamics, offering insights into the mechanisms through which divorce affects children's psychological adjustment and resilience.&#x0D; Originality/value – The findings of this study provide novel insights into the nuanced ways in which divorce shapes children's psychological development. By highlighting the diverse range of psychological effects experienced by children following divorce, this study advances our understanding of the complexities involved in this process, thereby enriching theoretical frameworks in the field of child development and family dynamics.

Construct-related validity of the strengths and difficulties questionnaires with three and five dimensions: A multitrait-multimethod analysis.

The Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) is one of the most broadly used questionnaires to evaluate children's psychological adjustment, however its internal structure has been a target of ongoing controversy. Recent studies suggested a three-factor structure of the SDQ, however data is still scarce. The present study used the Multitrait-Multimethod analysis to examine SDQ construct related-validity with three and five dimensions, provided by children, their parents and teachers. A total of 415 participants were recruited from a Portuguese community sample. Both SDQ versions presented good convergence-related validity, with higher values for the five version. Findings from this study suggest that the SDQ with three dimensions could be more suitable as a screening measure of children's psychological adjustment in a community low-risk sample. Nevertheless, the SDQ still needs further psychometric improvements in order to properly collect information from multi-source samples about the prevalence of children's psychological adjustment.

The relationship between parental involvement and psychological adjustment among Chinese children with autism spectrum disorder in the transition from kindergarten to primary school: A chain-mediating model.

This study examined the impact of parental involvement on the psychological adjustment of children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), and the role of parenting self-efficacy and parenting stress in the transition from kindergarten to primary school. Using the questionnaires, we collected data from 237 Chinese parents of children with ASD. Mediation analyses showed that parental involvement partially promoted the psychological adjustment of children with ASD, which was reflected in the fact that parental involvement promoted children's prosocial behavior but did not reduce their emotional/behavioral problems. Mediation analyses also revealed the role of the mediator in parenting stress between parental involvement and the psychological adjustment of children. Additionally, the results suggested that parenting self-efficacy and parenting stress played a chain-mediating role in the association between parental involvement and psychological adjustment in children with ASD. These findings enhance our understanding of the mechanisms underlying the relationship between parental involvement and psychological adjustment in children with ASD in the transition from kindergarten to primary school.

Investigation of the Effects of Temperament Traits on Preschool Children's Spiritual Adjustment

Bu çalışmada mizacın okul öncesi dönem çocuklarının ruhsal uyumuna etkisinin incelenmesi hedeflenmiştir. Çalışmada ayrıca çocukların mizaç özellikleri ve ruhsal uyum arasındaki ilişki incelenmiştir. Çalışma grubunu 5-6 yaşındaki 311 çocuk oluşturmuştur. Veriler çocukların annelerinden elde edilmiştir. Veri toplamada Çocuklar İçin Mizaç Ölçeği (ÇİMÖ) ve Hacettepe Ruhsal Uyum Envanteri kullanılmıştır. Verilerin analizinde Spearman Brown Korelasyon analizi ve CHAID analizi kullanılmıştır. Araştırma sonucunda çocukların yakınlık ve uyum, tepkisellik durumu, dikkat ve sebatkarlık, ritmiklik ve duygusal duyarlık mizaç özellikleri arttıkça ruhsal uyumlarının da arttığı belirlenmiştir. Araştırma sonucunda okul öncesi çocukların, anneleri tarafından ruhsal anlamda uyumlu olarak değerlendirildiği görülmüştür. Çocukların ruhsal uyumları üzerinde en etkili mizaç özelliğinin, tepkisellik durumu olduğu, çocukların tepkisellik davranışları ne kadar normal/kabul edilebilir düzeyde ise ruhsal uyumlarının da o kadar iyi düzeyde olduğu belirlenmiştir. Bunun yanında tepkiselliği ve duyusal hassasiyeti normal/kabul edilebilir düzeyde, yakınlık ve uyumu yüksek çocukların ruhsal uyumlarının iyi olduğu belirlenmiştir. Tepkiselliği orta düzeyde olan çocuklardan duygusal duyarlığı ve aktivite düzeyi yüksek çocukların, ayrıca kabul edilebilirliği en düşük tepkiselliğe sahip çocuklardan ritmikliği yüksek olan çocukların ruhsal uyumlarının iyi olduğu belirlenmiştir.

Maternal Cancer and Perception of Child Psychological Adjustment: The Role of Mother's Anxiety, Depression, and Parenting Stress.

A mother's cancer diagnosis may have consequences for all family members, particularly for children, since it makes a parent less physically and emotionally available, with effects on the relationship with the child and his/her development. The main aim of this study was to analyze children's psychological adjustment in the context of maternal cancer by considering factors related to the child (i.e., age and sex), the mother (psychological adjustment), and cancer (i.e., time elapsed from the diagnosis and current oncological treatment). Self-report questionnaires investigating mothers' parenting stress, depression, anxiety, and children's emotional and behavioral problems were administered to 124 mothers (mean age = 44.52 years; SD = 7.22) diagnosed with cancer. A hierarchical regression analysis highlighted that time since diagnosis and mothers' anxiety and parenting stress accounted for almost 44% of the variance of the children's difficulties. Maternal depression, current oncological treatment, and the child's age and sex were not statistically significant. Higher mothers' parenting stress and anxiety and a longer time elapsed since the first diagnosis predicted higher levels of children's emotional and behavioral problems. These findings highlight the need to identify precursors of childhood distress in the context of maternal cancer and to develop structured programs to support both mothers and children.

Effectiveness of Psychosocial Intervention on Quality of Life of Mothers of Children with Cancer: A Feasibility Study

Abstract Background Mothers of children with cancer are reported to experience stress more often. For children with cancer, parents are the primary source of social and emotional support, and they are also in charge of how successfully patients manage their illness. The degree of difficulty parents suffer after learning that their child has cancer significantly influences the child's psychological adjustment. Aim The study aimed to assess the effectiveness of psychosocial intervention on quality of life (QoL) among mothers of children with cancer. Materials and Methods Quasi-intervention study design was undertaken, and a purposive sampling technique was used to select the 60 mothers of children with cancer who were assigned randomly to the intervention and control groups. A pretested and validated self-administered questionnaire was used; the sociodemographic, WHOQOL-BREF scale with 26 items was studied. Statistical Analysis Prevalence, demographic pro forma of mother and child was analyzed in terms of frequency, percentage, mean, and standard deviation. Two-factor repeated measures analysis of variance was used to establish the effectiveness of the psychosocial intervention on QoL. Association was done by using the chi-square test. SPSS package was used for analysis. Results Psychosocial intervention was found to be effective in improving QoL scores in psychological health domain (p = 0.02*, p &lt; 0.05), social relationship domain (p = 0.04*, p &lt; 0.05), and environmental health domain (p = 0.001**, p &lt; 0.05). A significant association was found between the physical health domain and information on cancer (p = 0.01*), psychological health domain and financial status (p = 0.03*), social relationship domain and cost of treatment (p = 0.04*), Q1 and Q2 with the place of residence (p = 0.004**, p = 0.02*), and Q2 and financial status (p = 0.03*). Conclusion Mothers of children with cancer undergo a lot of stress and emotional turmoil and are at risk of deteriorating their QoL. Hence, they need to be provided support to address their issues. Thus, health professionals must develop and implement interventions to promote the QoL.

Developmental trajectories of internalizing distress among ethnic minoritized mothers following childbirth: Associations with early child psychological adjustment.

A substantial body of work has established that mothers' internalizing distress can negatively affect children's socioemotional development. Yet few studies have examined how distinct patterns of mothers' distress over time differentially impact child behaviors across early childhood. To address this gap, the current study explored developmental trajectories of mothers' internalizing distress and examined the associations of these patterns with child adjustment outcomes. Mexican immigrant, Dominican immigrant, and African American mothers (N = 272) were annually assessed for internalizing distress over the first 6 years following childbirth. Children's psychological adjustment (internalizing, externalizing, and hyperactivity behaviors) was measured at the last yearly assessment in first grade. A growth mixture model revealed two distinct classes of distress where mothers were classified as having low stable distress (82.4%) or moderate distress that began as stable then declined when their children were 64 months old (17.6%). Children of mothers in the moderate, late decline class showed greater internalizing, externalizing, and hyperactivity behaviors in the first grade compared to children of mothers in the low stable class. Findings highlight the necessity of supporting the mental health of ethnic minoritized mothers following childbirth and further expand our knowledge of family psychopathology to promote healthy psychological adjustment in children.

Association between parental occupations, educational levels, and household income and children's psychological adjustment in Japan

ObjectivesMost research on the association between parental or family socio-economic status and psychological adjustment in children has been performed mainly in Western countries, while there is limited evidence of such research in Asian countries. We examined the association of parental occupation and educational levels and household income with children's psychological adjustment in Japan. Study designThis was a cross-sectional study. MethodsStudy subjects were 6329 children aged 3 years. Children's psychological adjustment was assessed using the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire. ResultsCompared with having an unemployed father, having a father who worked in an administrative and managerial or clerical job was associated with a lower prevalence of peer problems. Compared with having an unemployed mother, having a mother who worked in the professional and engineering, sales, service, or manufacturing process area was associated with a lower prevalence of low prosocial behaviors, whereas having a mother who worked in the clerical, service, or manufacturing process area was associated with an increased prevalence of emotional problems. Having a mother who worked in a clerical area was associated with a higher prevalence of conduct problems. Higher paternal and maternal educational levels were inversely associated with the prevalence of conduct problems and hyperactivity but were positively associated with low prosocial behaviors. A higher household income was inversely associated with the prevalence of emotional problems, conduct problems, and hyperactivity. ConclusionParental occupation, educational levels, and household income may affect children's psychological adjustment in Japan.