Protokimberlite Melts Research Articles

Kimberlites of the Daldyn-Alakit region (Yakutia): Spatial distribution of the rocks with different chemical characteristics

New petrogeochemical data on a collection of 138 samples taken from 101 kimberlite bodies of the Alakit region of Yakutia have been interpreted. It was concluded that all studied kimberlites are homogenous in geochemical composition and comparable with Group I kimberlites of South Africa. Based on cluster analysis, kimberlites of the region are subdivided into six clusters. From the first to sixth clusters, kimberlites show a decrease in carbonate material and increase in magnesian component. The spatial distribution of clusters allowed us to distinguish zoned areas with central parts consisting of kimberlites with elevated CaO, CO2, Rb, Sr, Ba, and lowered contents of SiO2, TiO2, Fe2O3, FeO, MgO, V, Cr, and Ni. From the center outward, the values of δNd and (87Sr/86Sr)i decrease, which indicate increasing contribution of the lithospheric source. The formation of magnesian kimberlites at the periphery was related to the intense interaction of protokimberlite melt with lithospheric mantle, which was accompanied by metasomatic reworking of mantle rocks with formation of minerals of megacryst assemblage and assimilation of mantle material. Economically viable diamondiferous kimberlites are confined to the peripheral parts of distinguished zones, i.e., to the kimberlites of 5–6 clusters.

Structure and evolution of the lithospheric mantle beneath Siberian craton, thermobarometric study

Monomineral thermobarometry (MTB) data derived from EMP analyses for heavy monomineral separates from > 20 Yakutian kimberlite pipes were used to compile a SSE–NNW traverse of the mantle beneath the Siberian craton. Orthopyroxene (Opx) MBT for the mantle section beneath Udachnaya gives three PT paths: a low temperature (LT) conductive branch (Boyd et al., 1997), estimated with thermometers of Krogh (1988) or/and O'Neill and Wood (1979), and two other HT paths. The three paths correspond to different values of Fe# in Ol (0.075, 0.085 and 0.11). They are reproduced by the modified MTB equations for clinopyroxene, garnet, chromite and ilmenites (Ashchepkov et al., 2008a), a mono-version of the O'Neill and Wood (1979) thermometer with corrections to Cr and Ca/Mg ratios which mark conductive geotherm. PT estimates for garnets and pyroxenes reflect mantle layering, whereas those for ilmenite reflect varying conditions of polybaric mantle protokimberlite systems and metasomatism. MTB for xenoliths from the Udachnaya, Mir, Dalnyaya, and Komsomolskaya kimberlites show the colder branches if PT path using heavy mineral analyses them according to PT for xenoliths according to TB (O'Neill and Wood, 1979; Finnerty and Boyd, 1987; McGregor, 1974; Brey and Kohler, 1990) producing smoother geotherms. MTB gives a wider range PT points reflecting heating near magmatic channels. Regularities of mantle sections and layering in the Daldyn field are recognized on the PT and P– X diagrams. The lower part of the mantle sections were heated by protokimberlite melts which created the megacrystalline associations. PT values of sub-calcic garnets correlate with those of picroilmenites. Mantle columns beneath the large pipes reveal stepped 7–12 layering for Udachnaya pipe units correlating with the peaks of Re/Os ages (Griffin et al., 2002b) is marked by periodic increase in Fe# in minerals. Pyroxenites and ‘hot’ eclogites (Pokhilenko et al., 1999) are found in layers at ∼ ∼ 40, 50–65, and ∼ 70 kbar. Sub-continental lithospheric mantle (SCLM) beneath the Alakite field has been subjected to pervasive multistage metasomatism, as indicated by Fe-enriched Cr-diopsides and Ti-rich low-Ca garnets. Ilmenite PT trends were formed by rising protokimberlites that underwent AFC. In the Upper Muna field the mantle is similar in structure to that of the Alakite region. Fe-rich clinopyroxene-bearing rocks (60–55 kbar) are located between the ilmenite-forming systems (70–60 and 55–40 kbar), sub-Ca garnets start from 40 kbar and become more abundant downward. Beneath the Nakyn field, rhythmic layering is found for peridotites in the lower part ( P > 40 kbar), fertilization by Fe–Cpx (40–50 kbar) follow the Ilm-forming system ∼ 55–60 kbar correlating with the occurrence of depleted (low-Ca) peridotites. Beneath the Anabar fields highly depleted mantle at depth > 40 kbar has been subjected to Fe-metasomatism and pervasive metasomatism that accompanied protokimberlite feeders marked by low Cr-ilmenites accompanied by fertilization. In the upper section abundant garnet- and clinopyroxene-rich peridotites are typical. Comparison of mantle sections reconstructed from monomineral PT estimates from Paleozoic and Mesozoic kimberlites show differences in entrainment levels which were elevated after the Permian–Triassic superplume to > 55–40 kbar without delamination.

Can pyroxenes be liquidus minerals in the kimberlite magma?

Clinopyroxene and orthopyroxene are generally rare in kimberlites, and believed to originate from disintegrated mantle and crustal xenoliths. We report occurrence of inclusions of low-Ca and high-Ca pyroxenes in the olivine phenocrysts in the Udachnaya–East hypabyssal kimberlite (Yakutia, Russia), and make inferences on their relationships to the kimberlite magma. Pyroxenes are only found as either resorbed macrocrysts or small inclusions in olivine; both types are being very rare and volumetrically insignificant. All clinopyroxene and majority of orthopyroxene inclusions are hosted in the olivine cores (Fo 86–92) that are compositionally similar to olivine macrocrysts. Major and trace element compositions of clinopyroxene inclusions in olivine phenocrysts and macrocrysts are similar, and resemble compositions of clinopyroxene from lherzolite xenoliths hosted in the Udachnaya–East kimberlite. Their high Na 2O and Cr 2O 3 abundances (0.65–2.55 and 0.6–2.8 wt.%, respectively) suggest deep mantle origin (> 4.5 GPa). The majority of clinopyroxene inclusions have convex-upward trace element patterns that imply kimberlite-like compositions for the hypothetical equilibrium melts. Re-equilibration of clinopyroxene inclusions with the host kimberlite liquid through micro-cracks in olivine is our preferred explanation in this case, however, we cannot exclude their high-pressure crystallisation from the protokimberlite melt. Orthopyroxene inclusions show significant compositional overlap with the low-Al orthopyroxene from the Udachnaya peridotite nodules. Where such inclusions occur in olivine fragments and contact with the kimberlite groundmass, they are strongly resorbed and partially replaced by monticellite. The mantle origin of orthopyroxene and its host olivine and disequilibrium relationships with the kimberlite melt is most likely. Both clinopyroxene and orthopyroxene are completely absent in the kimberlite groundmass. We conclude that the parental melt of the Udachnaya–East kimberlite was not saturated in either clinopyroxene or orthopyroxene at low pressure. This argues against a perceived mafic-ultramafic lineage of the kimberlite primary melt, and provides further support for its essentially carbonate-chloride composition.

High-Mg carbonatitic microinclusions in some Yakutian diamonds—a new type of diamond-forming fluid

The composition of microinclusions in 26 fibrous cubic and coated diamonds from the Daldyn-Alakit kimberlite field, Yakutia were studied using EPMA and FTIR and the carbon isotopic composition of 4 of the diamonds was studied using SIMS. Fifteen diamonds carry carbonatitic high-density fluids (HDFs) with high MgO content (17–28 wt.%) whereas the MgO content of fluids in other diamonds does not exceed 14 wt.%. We propose that the two groups are distinct and evolved separately. The low-Mg suite is similar to previously reported carbonatitic to silicic HDFs from Africa and Brazil. The high-Mg suite is carbonatitic, but its composition is distinct from previously defined end-members. As the MgO content decreases from 28 to 17 wt.%, CaO, Na 2O, K 2O and Cl also decrease while the silica, Al 2O 3, TiO 2 and P 2O 5 contents remain constant. Additionally, the water band in the FTIR spectra of high-Mg HDFs is wider relative to the water band in the spectra of low-Mg carbonatitic HDFs. By combining EPMA and FTIR data, we have constrained the major element composition of the high-Mg carbonatitic end-member, which comprises 78 wt.% carbonates, 9% silicates, 6% water, 5% apatite and 2% halides. The composition of the high-Mg suite is closer to that of near-solidus melts of fertile carbonate peridotites and harzburgites. Thus, it should be possible to produce the Mg-rich HDF either by incipient melting, or by cooling and crystallization of a proto-kimberlitic melt at depth. However, the peridotitic system alone cannot explain the high alkali and Cl content of the fluids. We suggest that the elevated alkali and Cl content of the high-Mg carbonatites are related to interaction of carbonate peridotite with saline fluids, or of peridotite with chloride–carbonate melts. The major element composition of the high-Mg carbonatitic HDF is dominated by the low-fraction melts of the peridotite while the content of potassium and other incompatible elements is influenced by the contribution of the saline or carbonatitic fluids.

Origin of disequilibrium diamond crystals from Karpinsky-1 kimberlite pipe using data from cathode luminescence and infra red spectroscopy

The internal structures of 78 diamond crystals from the Karpinsky-1 pipe in the Arkhangelsk Province and the distributions of structural impurities in them were examined by the methods of cathode luminescence and IR spectroscopy. Three generations of diamonds were found in the pipe. Diamonds of the first and second generations presumably originated in an ultramafic and eclogite mantle medium. Diamonds of the third generation, which are very common in the pipe, show a fibrous internal structure and anomalously high concentrations of nitrogen and hydrogen; they originated under disequilibrium conditions. The third-generation diamonds differ by the set of their typomorphic features from diamonds of kimberlite origin and show some similarity with diamonds from metamorphic rocks. We hypothesize that the third-generation diamonds from Katpinsky-1 pipe could originate in a proto-kimberlitic melt.

Kimberlite metasomatism at Murowa and Sese pipes, Zimbabwe

Metasomatism accompanying kimberlite emplacement is a worldwide phenomenon, although infrequently described or recognised. At the Cambrian-aged Murowa and Sese kimberlite clusters located within the Archean Zimbabwe Craton just north of the boundary with the Limpopo Mobile Zone in southern central Zimbabwe, the metasomatism is intense and well exposed and the processes can be readily studied. Dykes, sills and the root zones of pipes are exposed at the current erosion level. Kimberlite lithologies present are hypabyssal macrocrystic kimberlite (“HMK”), HMK breccia, and tuffisitic kimberlite breccia (“TKB”) including minor lithic tuffisitic kimberlite breccia (“LTKB”). Country rocks are 2.6 Ga Chibi and Zimbabwe granite batholiths emplaced into 2.6–2.9 Ga or earlier Archean tonalitic gneiss and greenstones. During initial metasomatism, the granites become spotted with green chlorite, needles of alkaline amphiboles (winchite, riebeckite, arfvedsonite) and pyroxenes (aegirine–augite) with minor carbonate and felts of talc. Oligoclase feldspar becomes converted to albite, extensively altered, dusted and reddened with hematite, whereas K-feldspar remains unaffected. The granites become converted to syenite through removal of quartz. More intense metasomatism at Murowa and Sese results in veins of green metasomatite which cut and disrupt the granite. Progressive disruption entrains granite blocks, breaking down the granite still further, spalling off needle-like granite slivers, and so giving rise to LTKB. This process of disruption and entrainment appears to be the manner of initial development of the pipe structure. The chemistry of the metasomatite is intermediate between granite and kimberlite. Compared to granite country rock it has markedly higher Mg, Cr, Ni, CO2 and H2O+, higher Ca, Mn, Nb, Sr, P, Fe3+/Fe2+ ratio, U, Co, and Cu, approximately equal TiO2, K2O, Na2O, La, Ta, Rb, Zr, Zn and resultant lower SiO2, Al2O3, Ga and Y. The metasomatite Na2O/K2O ratio is slightly higher than that of the granite. The metasomatic process is broadly analogous to fenitisation of granitic wall rock accompanying carbonatite complex emplacement. The metasomatism at Murowa and Sese was caused by fluids from the rising but confined proto-kimberlite melt penetrating into cracks and matrix of granite country rock and reacting with it. These fluids were CO2-rich, hydrous, oxidising, enhanced in ultramafic elements and carried low levels of Na.

Kimberlite metasomatism at Murowa and Sese pipes, Zimbabwe

Metasomatism accompanying kimberlite emplacement is a worldwide phenomenon, although infrequently described or recognised. At the Cambrian-aged Murowa and Sese kimberlite clusters located within the Archean Zimbabwe Craton just north of the boundary with the Limpopo Mobile Zone in southern central Zimbabwe, the metasomatism is intense and well exposed and the processes can be readily studied. Dykes, sills and the root zones of pipes are exposed at the current erosion level. Kimberlite lithologies present are hypabyssal macrocrystic kimberlite (“HMK”), HMK breccia, and tuffisitic kimberlite breccia (“TKB”) including minor lithic tuffisitic kimberlite breccia (“LTKB”). Country rocks are 2.6 Ga Chibi and Zimbabwe granite batholiths emplaced into 2.6–2.9 Ga or earlier Archean tonalitic gneiss and greenstones. During initial metasomatism, the granites become spotted with green chlorite, needles of alkaline amphiboles (winchite, riebeckite, arfvedsonite) and pyroxenes (aegirine–augite) with minor carbonate and felts of talc. Oligoclase feldspar becomes converted to albite, extensively altered, dusted and reddened with hematite, whereas K-feldspar remains unaffected. The granites become converted to syenite through removal of quartz. More intense metasomatism at Murowa and Sese results in veins of green metasomatite which cut and disrupt the granite. Progressive disruption entrains granite blocks, breaking down the granite still further, spalling off needle-like granite slivers, and so giving rise to LTKB. This process of disruption and entrainment appears to be the manner of initial development of the pipe structure. The chemistry of the metasomatite is intermediate between granite and kimberlite. Compared to granite country rock it has markedly higher Mg, Cr, Ni, CO2 and H2O+, higher Ca, Mn, Nb, Sr, P, Fe3+/Fe2+ ratio, U, Co, and Cu, approximately equal TiO2, K2O, Na2O, La, Ta, Rb, Zr, Zn and resultant lower SiO2, Al2O3, Ga and Y. The metasomatite Na2O/K2O ratio is slightly higher than that of the granite. The metasomatic process is broadly analogous to fenitisation of granitic wall rock accompanying carbonatite complex emplacement. The metasomatism at Murowa and Sese was caused by fluids from the rising but confined proto-kimberlite melt penetrating into cracks and matrix of granite country rock and reacting with it. These fluids were CO2-rich, hydrous, oxidising, enhanced in ultramafic elements and carried low levels of Na.