Proto-Indo-European Research Articles

On the Divergence of Voiced Lateral Approximants in Indo-European languages

Introduction. This article is based on the results of a comparison of a number of Serbo-Croatian/Slovenian lexemes with a palatal lateral approximant [ʎ] and Western Slavic lexemes with a velarized lateral approximant [ɫ] with related lexemes in Slavic and other Indo-European (IE) languages. It is shown that the Balkan-Slavic [ʎ] irregularly corresponds to the phonemes [l'] and [j] of other Slavic languages and even some IE languages beyond the Slavic group. It is also shown that the West Slavic [ɫ] irregularly corresponds to the phonemes [l] and [w]/[v] of other Slavic and IE languages. Because of this irregularity, these phonetic correspondences are difficult to explain with local dialect features.Methodology and sources. A model based on the generalization of instrumental studies that showed that palatal sounds are characterized by instability of articulation is proposed. This leads to their divergent evolution, transformation into sounds with different stable zones of articulation.In the proposed model, the Proto-Indo-European (PIE) voiced lateral approximants *[ɫ] and *[ʎ], forming the opposition "hard consonant - soft consonant", in the process of phonetic evolution in IE languages were split into variants with a clearer articulation: velarized *[ɫ] > solid alveolar lateral [l] and bilabial fricative [w]; palatal *[ʎ] > soft alveolar lateral [l'] and palatal approximant [j]. Besides, the original consonants have survived in a number of languages.Results and discussion. Examples of correspondences are given to suggest the presence of *[ɫ] and *[ʎ] in PIE and Common Slavic prototypes. The newly discovered etymological links, such as the links between Russian lexemes баня 'bath' and балий, бальник 'healer, sorcerer' are being discussed.Conclusion. With the help of the mechanism of divergent evolution of the palatal lateral approximant *[ʎ] and the velarized lateral approximant *[ɫ] the irregularity of phonetic correspondences of voiced lateral approximants in Slavic languages can be uniformly explained.Besides, the acceptance of *[ʎ] and *[ɫ] in PIE phonology also lets us to establish some previously undetected etymological relations.

«Si marzo tuerce el rabo, ni pastores ni ganados»: ecología, superstición, cuento popular, mito pagano y culto católico del mes de marzo

Diversos cultos católicos españoles a «Vírgenes de Marzo » a las que se asocian referentes ganaderos tienen relación con un cuento de El pastor y marzo arraigado en muchas culturas del Mediterráneo. El estudio de sus fuentes nos lleva a viejos mitos y ritos agropastoriles referidos al dios romano Marte y a la diosa vasca Mari, eslabones de un arquetipo mítico aún más arcaico, de origen probablemente indoeuropeo.

Gender and numeral classifiers in Modern Nepali and their Proto-Indo-European analogues

Proto-Indo-European (PIE) had two grammatical genders (common and neuter); the feminine was a shared innovation of the non-Anatolian part of the family. Using comparison with Modern Nepali, we argue that the puzzling feminine forms of the numerals ‘3’ and ‘4’ in Celtic and Indo-Iranian, and possibly also some similar constructions in Latin and Old Irish, are survivals of a system of numeral classifiers predating the full gender system. They contain the feminine element * s(o)r-, grammaticalized as a numeral classifier in PIE. A similar situation is attested in Nepali, where grammatical gender occurs alongside numeral classifiers. Analogies between numeral phrases in PIE and Nepali help elucidate the historical development in question.

The influence of parity judgement on the derivation process from the numerals ‘one’ and ‘two’

The purpose of this research paper is to describe the relationship between the binary thinking of ancient people and the formation of the concept of number. The objects of the study are paleographic, ethno-psychological and biological studies examining the development of the counting principles and quantitative thinking of primitive men. The subject of the study are the numbers ’one’ and ‘two’, as well as their forms and derivatives in Germanic languages. The analyzed studies allow to conclude that the development of the first numerals derives from dual thinking, which is based on the ability to divide the whole into parts. The close connection to the surrounding world and the inborn parity judgement of some individuals in the Upper Paleolithic Period generates the first two numbers, hence numerals in the Proto Indo-European language. Both originate from one root, the form of which can be traced to the Proto Indo-European word ‘kwa’ as a part of the whole, i.e. two hands. Starting with the ultimate meaning of binary unified entity it split first into ‘part and whole’. Later the meaning branched even more (symmetry, completeness, contradiction, branching, merging, union, sameness, equality, repetitiveness, sequence, coherence, excessiveness, addition), creating diachronically countless derivatives of the initial ‘one’ and ‘two'. The binary nature of the Indo-European thinking had an effect on both everyday life and the religion, which was implemented in a later, pre-literate period and has been corroborated by archaeological finds. The rudimentary traces of primitive binary thinking are reflected in the contemporary realia and can be found in all languages of the Indoeuropean language group. The further research will cover the influence of the paired unity by fractionation on the allocation of subsequent numericals.

Once again about archaic in the Gó ral traditional culture

Gó rals are a separate ethnocultural group living in the mountainous regions of the Carpathians on the borderlands of Poland and Slovakia (Silesia, Orava, Podhale, Spiš, etc.). In the ethnogenesis of this group, not only Slavic tribes and peoples took part, but also Hungarians, Ger-mans, Aromanians, Turks, etc., which enriched the Gó ral traditional culture with other ethnic elements. Both Slavic and non-Slavic elements of spiritual culture retain their antiquity, that is, the archaic features of the traditional culture of the Gó rals include the cultural archaisms of the peoples inhabiting this region. In various spheres of the spiritual cul-ture of this mountainous region, many archaic elements of the common Slavic era have been preserved, which are also known in diff erent parts of the Slavic world. In funeral rituals, these are, for example, relics of “white mourning”, the custom of lightly hitting the coffi n on the thresh-old when taking it out of the house, a wedding-funeral, prohibitions on a number of works on memorial days so as not to “clog the eyes” of the souls of the dead, etc. In the fi eld of traditional medicine, such common Slavic practices are methods of treating the evil eye and sorcery (extin-guishing coals), the magic of ensuring the life and health of a newborn (passing a baptized child through a window, treating “sukhotka” (con-sumption) by dragging through a kalatch), methods of treating fever (leaving things on the road), the belief that moonlight can cause illness in a child, etc. In folklore, such archaic (at least Balto-Slavic) motives are the transfer of objects from one mountain to another by giants and the motive of the troops sleeping in a mountain. This motive is Celtic in origin (at least in Europe), however, it has deep Indo-European origins.

Am I, Me, and Who's She? Liberation Psychology, Historical Memory, and Muslim women

One of the central underpinnings of Islamophobia is the theoretical construction of Muslim women as “Other”. Going hand in hand with colonization, the overall Orientalist imaginary has depicted Muslims as misogynistic, homophobic, and gynophobic in contrast to the normal and enlightened Western European subject. Liberation psychology, as a field of decolonial work, emphasizes several main tasks one of which is the recovery of historical memory in relation to how humans see each other and the world. This paper builds on the work of recovering historical memory to emphasize the Indo-European origins of misogyny and patriarchy and the subsequent cover-up of this history as a part of the legacy of colonialism and current narratives of Islamophobia. The paper concludes that the work of psychology should include decoding reality to uncover the true nature of the origins of patriarchy, thus building new, revitalized understandings of human society.

On the Divergence of a Proto-Indo-European Velar Syllabic Nasal in Indo-European Languages

Introduction. The proposed article critically examines the explanation of the origin of nasal vowels in Slavic languages by incorporating an open syllable law. It is shown that the convergence of many closed syllables, ending with nasal consonants, into two kinds of open syllables with nasal vowels contradicts a number of facts of evolution in the opposite direction, e. g., evolution of nasal vowels towards combinations ”a vowel – a nasal consonant“ in Balkan Slavic languages (Bulg. пент ”five“, вънзел ”knot“), as well as to the observed interpretation of Slavic nasal vowels in acts of borrowing by languages without nasal vowels, e. g. OCS дѫбрава ”oak forest“ > Rom. dumbrávă. Methodology and sources. The proposed model results from generalization of the data of instrumental phonetical research, which show that the articulation of palatal consonants is unstable leading to there divergent evolution, i. e. transformation to sounds with more definite zones of articulation, e. g. palatal lateral approximant *[ʎ] split into palatalized lateral liquid [l'] and fricative [j]. In the proposed model Proto-Indo-European (PIE) syllable velar nasal consonant *ŋ̍ in the process of its phonetic evolution in Indo-European (IE) languages split into a variety of nasal vowels with different articulations, which further on irregularly transformed into vowels without nasalization or into combinations of vowels with nasal consonants (e. g. OInd. paŋktíṣ, OIsl. fimt, Lith. penkì, OCS пѩть, OHG finf, fimf, funf "пять", etc., from the common PIE prototype with syllable nasal *ŋ̍). Results and discussion. Examples of PIE prototypes of lexemes meaning “water bird”, “tooth, sharp edge”, “five”, as well as lexemes, related to Russ. нутро, ядро, неясыть, уж, угорь, нагой, нога, ноготь are presented. All prototypes contain a nasal syllabic, which is split producing four types of reflexes in IE languages. Newly discovered etymological links, such as the connection between Russ. Lexemes meaning “leg” and “corner”, are discussed.Conclusion. The proposed model permits to uniformly explain the facts of synchronous existence of related Rus. недро ”insides“ and ядро ”nucleos“, related нутро и утроба ”belly“, related OCS ѫты, Lith. ántis and AGr. Att. νῆττα “duck”, related Rus. неясыть “a kind of owl; pelican” and ненасытный “insatiable”, etc., using the notion of divergent evolution of the PIE syllable velar nasal *ŋ̍.

Filip Vesdin and the comparison of Sanskrit with Iranian and Germanic languages

ABSTRACT Filip Vesdin, known by his monastic name Paulinus a Sancto Bartholomaeo (1748–1806), was a Carmelite missionary stationed from 1776 to 1789 in Southwestern India. Vesdin authored an impressive opus of 32 books and smaller treatises on Brahmanic religion and customs, oriental manuscripts and antiques collections, language comparison and missionary history. This article focuses on the field of language comparison, principally on Vesdin’s book De antiquitate et affinitate linguae Zendicae, Samscrdamicae, et Germanicae dissertatio (= Dissertation on the Antiquity and the Affinity of the Zend, Sanskrit, and Germanic Languages), published in Rome in 1798. In this rather short treatise (56 pages), the most important part consists of three word-lists where a large number of words from Avestan, Sanskrit and Germanic languages are compared in order to prove that these languages are related. The paper presents Vesdin’s three word-lists together with a description and evaluation of his views on the relationships between these languages in order to highlight his significance in the history of comparative and historical linguistics. The paper also provides new insights into the relationship of De antiquitate to Vesdin’s later proto-linguistic treatise, De Latini sermonis origine (1802). Abbreviations Av.: Avestan; Guj.: Gujaratī; IIr.: Indo-Iranian; Lat.: Latin; Malab.: Malabaricum (Vesdin’s term for Malayāḷam); Malay.: Malayāḷam; MHG: Middle High Germa; NHG: New High German; NP: New Persian; OAv.: Old Avestan; OFris.: Old Frisian; OHG: Old High German; OSax.: Old Saxon; Pahl.: Pahlavi; PG: Proto Germanic; PIE: Proto Indo-European; Skt.: Sanskrit; YAv.: Young Avestan

Genome-Wide Association Study of Metabolic Syndrome Reveals Primary Genetic Variants at CETP Locus in Indians.

Indians, a rapidly growing population, constitute vast genetic heterogeneity to that of Western population; however they have become a sedentary population in past decades due to rapid urbanization ensuing in the amplified prevalence of metabolic syndrome (MetS). We performed a genome-wide association study (GWAS) of MetS in 10,093 Indian individuals (6617 MetS and 3476 controls) of Indo-European origin, that belong to our previous biorepository of The Indian Diabetes Consortium (INDICO). The study was conducted in two stages—discovery phase (N = 2158) and replication phase (N = 7935). We discovered two variants within/near the CETP gene—rs1800775 and rs3816117—associated with MetS at genome-wide significance level during replication phase in Indians. Additional CETP loci rs7205804, rs1532624, rs3764261, rs247617, and rs173539 also cropped up as modest signals in Indians. Haplotype association analysis revealed GCCCAGC as the strongest haplotype within the CETP locus constituting all seven CETP signals. In combined analysis, we perceived a novel and functionally relevant sub-GWAS significant locus—rs16890462 in the vicinity of SFRP1 gene. Overlaying gene regulatory data from ENCODE database revealed that single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) rs16890462 resides in repressive chromatin in human subcutaneous adipose tissue as characterized by the enrichment of H3K27me3 and CTCF marks (repressive gene marks) and diminished H3K36me3 marks (activation gene marks). The variant displayed active DNA methylation marks in adipose tissue, suggesting its likely regulatory activity. Further, the variant also disrupts a potential binding site of a key transcription factor, NRF2, which is known for involvement in obesity and metabolic syndrome.

Greek and the Indo-European Verb

AbstractThis article reviews Andreas Willi’s study of the history and prehistory of the Greek and Proto-Indo-European (PIE) verbal system which tries to put the data of one of the ‘classical’ languages of PIE reconstruction back onto the centre stage after much attention has been given to Anatolian (Hittite, etc.) and Tocharian in recent decades. It argues that in the earliest reconstructable phase PIE had ergative alignment and that the switch to nominative-accusative alignment triggered a series of changes leading to the distribution of stem formations found in Greek and other ancient PIE languages (root aorists, reduplicated aorists and presents, thematic aorists and presents, s-aorists and s-futures, etc.). The review tries to show that the study presents a series of thought-provoking and well-argued hypotheses, while with its focus on prehistory its philological analyses tend to rely on a few chosen examples.

Genomewide association study for C-reactive protein in Indians replicates known associations of common variants

Elevated C-reactive protein (CRP) serves as an independent biomarker for acute and chronic inflammation, and is also associated with metabolic diseases. Genomewide loci regulating CRP level in Indian population, a high-risk group for metabolic illness, is unexplored. Therefore, we aimed to discover common polymorphisms associated with plasma CRP level in 4493 Indians of Indo-European origin using genomewide association study. Genomewide strong associations of two known intronic variants in hepatocyte nuclear factor-1 α gene (HNF1A) were identified among Indian subjects. We also detected prior associations of several variants in/near metabolic and inflammatory process genes: APOC1, LEPR, CRP, HNF4A, IL6R and APOE with modest associations. This study confirms that Indians from Indo-European origin display similar core universal genetic factors for CRP levels.

Genomewide association study of C-peptide surfaces key regulatory genes in Indians

Insulin is a commonly used measure of pancreatic β-cell function but exhibits a short half-life in the human body. During biosynthesis, insulin release is accompanied by C-peptide at an equimolar concentration which has a much higher plasma half-life and is therefore projected as a precise measure of β-cell activity than insulin. Despite this, genetic studies of metabolic traits haveneglected the regulatory potential of C-peptide for therapeutic intervention of type-2 diabetes. The present study is aimed to search genomewide variants governing C-peptide levels in genetically diverse and high risk population for metabolic diseases-Indians. We performed whole genome genotyping in 877 healthy Indians of Indo-European origin followed by replication of variants with P ≤ 1 × 10-3 in an independent sample-set of 1829 Indians. Lead-associated signals were also tested in-silico in 773 Hispanics. To secure biological rationale for observed association, we further carried out DNA methylation quantitative trait loci analysis in 233 Indians and publicly available regulatory data was mined. We discovered novel lncRNA gene AC073333.8 with the strongest association with C-peptide levels in Indians that however missed genomewide significance. Also, noncoding genes, RP1-209A6.1 and RPS3AP5; protein gene regulators, ZNF831 and ETS2; and solute carrier protein gene SLC15A5 retained robust association with C-peptide after meta-analysis. Integration of methylation data revealed ETS2 and ZNF831 single-nucleotide polymorphisms as significant meth-QTLs in Indians. All genes showed reasonable expression in the human lung, signifying alternate important organs for C-peptide biology. Our findings mirror polygenic nature of C-peptide where multiple small-effect size variants in the regulatory genome principally govern the trait biology.

Family and Hereditary Traditions of Therurikids: Branches of the Olgovichs, the Davidovichs, the Owners of Chernihiv Siverskyi Principality

The article studies the national elite of the Rurikids’ princely dynasties, the Kyivan Rus owners and the Chernihiv Siversky branches of the Olgovichs and Davidovichs, as the only inherited Eastern Slavic community of the Indo-European origin. In the basis of the family and hereditary traditions of property division, the custom of dividing property among the children remained and was inherited by the Rurikids. The aim of the article is to generalize the national historical experience of the traditions’ transformation of a family law, on the example of the genealogical origin of the Rurikids’ princely dynasties. The branches of the Olgovichs and the Davidovichs, the owners of Chernihiv Siverskyi principality in the Kyivan Rus, state association. Research methodology is based on the heuristic method of modern and classical scientific historiography systematization, which reveals the historical process of culturological thought of the Rurikids’ family and hereditary property division: the Olgovichs, the owners of Chernigiv Siverskyi region on the system of “rota system” order of the princely thrones’replacement . The scientific novelty is to systematize the social and cultural history, including the transformations of national-independent, family and hereditary traditions of property relations, on the example of the Rurikids’Chernihiv-Siverskyi principality, which is still now embodied in the Civil Code of Ukraine – “law of inheritance”. As a result, on the basis of the declared historiography, the editions of Rurikids’ history, the Rus owners, including the Chernigiv-Siversky region. Some of their achievements in the development of a state association Kyivan Rus were about 80 cities under the dynasty’s command; the management system with elements of self-government; the democracy through a nationwide town's meeting; political diplomatic, socio-legal, tradeeconomic, financial-monetary relations; social, cultural, secular architecture; the development of art. The historical and cultural heritage of the Rurikids’ dynasty ruling elite, including the dynasty of the Olgovichs, the Davidovichs, is kept in the traditions of the material, spiritual culture of the Chernihiv-Siverskyi region, both in the museum treasury and in the reserves of “Ancient Chernihiv”, Glukhiv, Putivl, Liubech, etc.Article received 20.04.2018

Once again on the Proto-Indo-European Character of Two Proto-Slavic Verb Accent Paradigms

Once again on the Proto-Indo-European Character of Two Proto-Slavic Verb Accent Paradigms

New lexicostatistical data on the Southern adstratum in Proto-Indo-European

New lexicostatistical data on the Southern adstratum in Proto-Indo-European

Studies in phonological theory and historical linguistics by Bill J. Darden

Reviewed by: Studies in phonological theory and historical linguistics by Bill J. Darden Rick Derksen Bill J. Darden Studies in phonological theory and historical linguistics. Bloomington, IN: Slavica Publishers, 2015. viii + 434 pp. ISBN 978-089357-446-8. As suggested by its title, this collection of studies by Bill Darden consists of two parts. The first part contains 17 articles on historical linguistics, 14 of which were originally published in the 1990s. The topics range from Proto-Indo-European and Balto-Slavic to Baltic and Slavic individually. The 10 articles on phonological theory which make up the second part of the book were for the greater part published in the 1970s and 1980s. The most recent phonological study, which is also the article that concludes the volume, is a retrospective on phonology in Chicago in the period 1965–2004. Considering that the author has "never felt any disconnect between diachronic linguistics and linguistic theory" (1), it will come as no surprise that the division between the two parts of the book is not as strict as it may seem. The phonological studies feature many examples from Slavic and Baltic that involve historical developments, while phonological theory is employed to gain a better understanding of historical changes. Throughout the collection one can observe an interaction between phonological theory and empirical findings. Since I feel that I could hardly do justice to Darden's theoretical work on phonology and morphophonology, I shall focus on the first part of the book. The earliest article on historical linguistics in this collection (Darden 1979) is actually, I am ashamed to admit, the only publication that I knew beforehand. It is a critical assessment of Illič-Svityč's monograph on Slavic and Baltic nominal accentuation (1963, English translation 1979), which tries to clarify the relationship between Slavic and Baltic nominal accent paradigms while providing comparative proof for its Indo-European origins. Darden rejects Illič-Svityč's claims, finding himself closer to Kuryłowicz's view that the Balto-Slavic and Indo-European accent classes are genetically unrelated. When I first read Darden's article, which must have been when I was working on my dissertation (Derksen 1996), I considered Kuryłowicz's accentological work largely obsolete and, to be honest, I see no reason to change my mind. Darden makes a number of valid points, however, as I already realized at the time. First, Illič-Svityč's [End Page 213] handling of data from dialect descriptions and manuscripts, which on the whole was a crucial step forward in comparison with that of many predecessors, occasionally seems somewhat eclectic (92). Second, there is the fundamental issue of to what extent it is justified to identify etyma from different branches of Indo-European as a form that can theoretically be traced to the same proto-form, since one or more cognates may have been created at a later stage (ibid.).1 I agree with Darden that some of Illič-Svityč's comparisons have little evidential value. It does not seem very useful, for instance, to compare Lith. gãnas 'herdsman', cf. ganýti 'to herd', directly with Skt. ghaná- 'striker, killer, club' (101; cf. Derksen 2015: 163). In a publication from 1989, Darden tries to evaluate part of Illič-Svityč's Lithuanian comparative data—the discussion is limited to nouns with a so-called short root—by classifying them into six categories. This categorization is based on the reliability of the etymological connection. Then he combines these sets of forms with a system that purports to quantify the reliability of the accentual variants. Darden again reaches the conclusion that Illič-Svityč's claims cannot be substantiated. I have no intention of discussing Darden's accentological studies in detail, though his transparent and open presentation reads like an invitation to do so. I would like to point out, however, that apart from questioning certain aspects of Illič-Svityč's methodology, Darden also succeeds in pinpointing one of the main weaknesses of the monograph, to wit, the unconvincing treatment of the fate of the neuter o-stems (93). According to Illič-Svityč, Slavic neuter o-stems with a short root regularly correspond to Lithuanian masculine o-stems with mobile stress...

Root enlargement or stem-forming *-u-? PIE *(s)teh2u-beside *(s)teh2-‘to stand up’, *terh2u-and *senh2u-as against *terh2-‘to cross, overcome’ and *senh2u- ‘to reach’ and others

Verbal stems of the type CeC(C)-u- (or CC(C)-e-) / CC(C)-u-´ are attested for some PIE roots, at least in one of the oldest languages, either as the only present stem or beside root presents and/or stems marked by means of other suffixes. The present contribution focuses on the evidence for some verbal lexemes from which -u-stems have been formed, and aims at the identification of -u- either as a root-extension, or as a stem-forming morpheme (either as an aspect marker or as an Aktionsart marker) in the languages where they occur, and eventually in Core Indo-European and/or in Proto Indo-European. It relies on three assumptions: (a) if the semantics of the -u-formation and of the non-enlarged root of one given lexeme is the same, -u- may be considered as a root-extension: this is e.g. the case with the reflexes of *(s)teh2-u- beside *(s)teh2- ‘to stand up’, as attested in several languages. (b) if the -u-formation (or thematized *-o/e-) of a lexeme is its only present stem, it may be considered as a (fully grammaticalized) aspectual marker (“-u-present”), e.g. Gk. ἐρύο/e- ‘to draw, take (by force)’ (from *erh2-u-) beside aor. °ηυρᾱ- ‘stripped violently’ (*(e)h2-). (c) if the -u-formation stands beside another stem (: the present stem proper), it may be (or have been) an Aktionsart marker: if it has no recognizable specific semantics, on may assume that Aktionsart has once existed, but has vanished in a previous phase; if it has specific semantics as against a non-enlarged root-present or another type of marked presentstem of the same lexeme, -u- may express an Aktionsart which may be recognized in a contrastive approach. On the strength of the cross-linguistic evidence for *ĝerh2-u- ‘to grind down’, *terh2-u- ‘to overcome’, and *senh2-u- ‘to roast’ as against their counterparts *ĝerh2- ‘to grow/make old’, *terh2- ‘to cross over, pass through’, and *senh2- ‘to reach’, an attempt is made to show that the -u-forms express high transitivity, and that their avatars in the daughter languages reflect specific lexicalizations of this original function.

Aspects of the Indo-European Aorist and Imperfect

Abstract The Proto-Indo-European (PIE) tense-aspect system has been reconstructed since the time of Delbrück (1897) as containing a fundamental opposition between two aspect-denoting stems: An Aorist stem, denoting perfective aspect, and a Present stem, denoting imperfective aspect. This reconstruction is, for practical reasons, based almost entirely on Greek and Vedic. Re-examining the Homeric and R̥gvedic data, I argue on semantic grounds against this century-old understanding of the tense-aspect system of PIE. In its place, I reconstruct the “Aorist” indicative as denoting perfect aspect (not perfective), and the “Imperfect” indicative as a simple past tense (not imperfective). Evidence for this reconstruction is based on the consistent usage in the R̥gveda of the Aorist in the meaning ‘have done X’ (with present reference) and the Imperfect in the meaning ‘did X’ (especially in narrative contexts)—a distribution which frequently has a precise match in Homer.

Индоевропейские истоки образования основ армянского аориста

Индоевропейские истоки образования основ армянского аориста

Utility of Finnish Vocabulary of Indo-European Origin for Learning Finnish

Utility of Finnish Vocabulary of Indo-European Origin for Learning Finnish