Proficiency Testing Research Articles

Evaluating proficiency testing implementation and identifying challenges that government comprehensive specialized hospital laboratories in northwest Ethiopia faced as they participated in the external quality assessment scheme: A document-based, interview-driven evaluation.

To assess the implementation of proficiency testing in the northwest Ethiopian government comprehensive specialized hospital laboratories, with a focus on identifying and understanding the challenges encountered during their participation in the external quality assessment scheme. A cross-sectional study was conducted among 3 comprehensive specialized hospitals in northwest Ethiopia, analyzing 41 documented laboratory test parameters from 2020 to 2022. In addition, face-to-face, in-depth interviews were carried out to identify the major challenges the participating institutions faced. The study covered a total of 41 tests across 9 cycles. Overall, proper implementation of proficiency testing was observed in 59.3% of the tests, with 61.8% maintaining consistent implementation status over 3 consecutive years. In addition, the overall performance of the laboratory was 54.3%, with a 68.7% participation rate. The predominantly identified challenges included the lack of participation, insufficient reagents and supplies, inadequacy of suitable proficiency testing materials, equipment malfunction and downtime, lack of management support, insufficient budget, and inadequate training and awareness. The results of this study highlight the ineffective implementation of proficiency testing. Contributing factors include personnel issues, equipment and supplies challenges, managerial shortcomings, difficulties with proficiency testing providers, budgetary constraints, and a lack of training and motivation.

Development and implementation of the external quality assessment program for erythrocyte sedimentation rate in hematology laboratories in Thailand

Background: The erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) remains the most widely used screening test for monitoring the course of infections, inflammatory diseases, and some types of cancer. Proficiency Testing (PT) programs are unavailable in Thailand for ESR. Objective: This study aimed to develop and initiate the PT program to improve testing quality through evaluation and analysis of the laboratory test results for ESR. Materials and methods: The PT program for ESR was established at the AMS CMU EQA Unit by the ISO/IEC17043:2010 requirements. The unit produced and sent the ESR control materials to participants for laboratory analysis; the test results were returned to the unit. The PT program was carried out in two cycles per year, with two samples in each cycle. The performance of each laboratory was assessed using robust Z score and performance score. Results: ESR control materials presented with satisfactory homogeneity and stability according to ISO 13528: 2015. One hundred and four laboratories were enrolled in the PT program. Of these laboratories, 96 (92.3%) returned their data: 40 (42.7%) used the modified Westergren method, 29 (29.2%), 14 (15.7%), and 13 (12.4%) used Microsed, Mixrate, and other methods, respectively. Satisfactory and questionable performance was obtained in 82/96 (85.4.%) and 8/96 (8.3%), respectively. Unsatisfactory performance was noted at 6/96 (6.3%). The level of excellent performance was achieved by 82 (approx. 85%) of these laboratories. Two main types of errors found from analyzing the received data were (i) specimen processing and (ii) incorrect identification of the analytical method. Conclusion: Our results indicate that the advantage of participation in the PT program for ESR is that the laboratories can monitor and investigate the source of laboratory errors. Therefore, the PT program for ESR testing should become an integral part of the quality assurance system in the laboratory.

Acute Eye-Tracking Changes Correlated With Vestibular Symptom Provocation Following Mild Traumatic Brain Injury.

To quantify norms and changes in eye-tracking proficiency, and determine vestibular symptom correlations in varsity college athletes following acute mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI). We hypothesized that mTBI impacts central coordination between the vestibular and oculomotor systems with resultant changes in eye-tracking proficiency that are correlated with vestibular symptom provocation. Retrospective cohort study. Sports medicine care at a single institution. One hundred and nineteen college athletes diagnosed with mTBI by a physician between 2013 and 2019. N/A. Standard deviation of tangential error, standard deviation of radian error, mean phase error, and horizontal gain from virtual reality-based, circular eye-tracking goggles used at baseline and within 72 hours post-mTBI. Headache, dizziness, nausea, and fogginess provocation after the Vestibular Ocular Motor Screening (VOMS) smooth pursuits subtest compared with pretest baseline, assessed within 72 hours post-mTBI. One hundred and nineteen college athletes (N = 56 women and 63 men) aged 18 to 24 years sustained a total of 177 mTBI. Forty-four percent of athletes displayed abnormal eye-tracking on at least 1 eye-tracking measure following acute mTBI compared with their baseline. From the VOMS, horizontal gain showed medium-sized to large-sized positive correlations with headache ( r = 0.34) and dizziness ( r = 0.54), respectively. Mean phase error showed a medium-sized negative correlation with nausea ( r = -0.32) on the VOMS. Eye-tracking proficiency was impaired and correlated with vestibular symptom provocation following acute mTBI in college athletes. Future research should examine eye-tracking proficiency testing in other acute care settings to support mTBI diagnosis.

The Implementation of Traceability and Ensuring Validity of Results at Testing Laboratories for Air and Exhaust Gas in Indonesia

Ensuring metrological traceability and result validity is a critical aspect of testing laboratories to obtain reliable results and ensure comparability. A survey was conducted in testing laboratories to assess the extent of traceability and result validity assurance through the utilization of certified reference materials and the implementation of quality assurance. The objective of this survey is to determine the necessary types of reference materials and proficiency tests, particularly for air and exhaust gas laboratories, in order to enhance the development of reference materials and proficiency testing services. The survey involved distributing a questionnaire regarding the utilization of certified reference materials and the implementation of quality assurance to accredited air and exhaust gas testing laboratories. The findings revealed that out of the 25 participating laboratories, a significant portion had not yet incorporated the use of certified reference materials in their testing processes. Although internal quality control measures were generally implemented across laboratories, only 40% had adopted external quality control methods, such as comparative and proficiency tests. Consequently, it is evident that there is an urgent need to develop reference materials for all parameters of air and exhaust gas testing, and there is a requirement for updated information for proficiency test providers.

Virtual reality aiding fire scene investigation: A thankless endeavor or catalyst for change?

AbstractThe training of a fire investigator should lay the foundations for a systematic, evidence‐based, and unbiased analysis of a fire scene. The ability of the investigators to determine the origin, cause and development of a fire is gained through education, experience based on on‐the‐job training and focused continuous professional development (CPD). Practitioners have met these requirements for several decades through formal examinations and specialized training. Additionally, several countries provide training in full‐scale (simulated) fire scenes for public and private sector fire investigators. These scenes may also be used for ongoing competency and proficiency testing. However, simulated fire scene setups are costly, limited to a single excavation event, and often short‐lived due to deterioration upon use and ease of contamination. The COVID‐19 pandemic highlighted the need, and provided the opportunity, for developing both virtual/hybrid training and competence testing, prompting the exploration of novel technologies in this area. A cross‐border multi‐agency partnership between academics, forensic practitioners, and forensic scientists explored the feasibility of leveraging digitalization techniques to support immersive virtual reality (VR). We outline the critical aspects and requirements beyond the challenges connected to technical feasibility, which the forensic science and judicial community demand so that technological development would be considered admissible within the justice system.This article is categorized under: Crime Scene Investigation > Crime Scene Documentation and Visualization Digital and Multimedia Science > Multimedia Forensics

Studying Motor Praxis in Children With Varying Levels of Developmental Coordination Disorder

Background and Aims This research aimed to examine the gesture production ability of motor praxis among children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD) and children on the verge of developing DCD and compare it to typical children of the same age and younger. Methods For this reason, 91 boys (6-12 years old) were selected as sample size and divided into five groups (20 children with typical development, 14 children with DCD, 17 children on the verge of developing DCD, 20 typically-developed children aged 8-9 years, and 20 typically-developed children aged 6-7 years). To find the children with DCD, we employed the developmental coordination disorder questionnaire 7th edition (DCDQ-7) and the Bruininks–Oseretsky test of motor Proficiency. The Dewey gesture production test was performed to investigate motor praxis. Data analysis was performed using variance analysis and an independent t test. Results Comparing the subjects’ performance in different conditions showed that their performance in transitive motor praxis was better than intransitive one (P<0.05). Also, the comparison of verbal command and imitation position showed that between the two DCD groups, the performance in the imitation movements was significantly better (P<0.05). While in the same age control group, no significant difference was seen between motor praxis in two conditions (P>0.05). The between-group comparisons showed that the performance of two DCD groups was disrupted compared to that of the control group at the same age. The performance of the DCD group compared to lower-age children with typical development (8-9 years old) was not different at the verbal command condition. In the imitation position condition, the DCD group performed significantly better than the lower-age children groups (P<0.05). Conclusion These results show that DCD subjects have developmental delays in performing motor praxis under verbal command.

The effect of eight weeks of central stability exercises on sensory-motor development of children with high-functioning autism spectrum disorder

Introduction: Sensory-motor problems are among the outstanding characteristics of autism spectrum disorders (ASD). Aim: The present research was conducted aiming to assess the effectiveness of eight weeks of central stability exercises on the sensory-motor development of children with high-functioning ASD. Method: The research method was semi-experimental with a pretest-posttest design with a control group. The statistical population consisted of all 6-10-year-old children with ASD referring to autism rehabilitation centers in Tehran in 2023. Twenty-four high-functioning ASD children were selected by the convenience sampling method and evaluated by the Sensory Profile-2 tests and the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency after eight sessions of central stability exercises. The results were analyzed using univariate and multivariate analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) and SPSS version 22. Results: The results of univariate ANCOVA indicated that eight weeks of central stability exercises culminated in promoting sensory development in children with high-functioning ASD (P<0.01). The results of multivariate ANCOVA indicated that the F value obtained for all three dimensions of motor development, including gross motor skill, fine motor skill, and upper limb coordination, was significant (P<0.01). Conclusion: According to the results, it can be concluded that central stability exercises are among the efficient methods for the development of sensory-motor skills in children with high-functioning ASD, which can be used in special education and rehabilitation centers for these children.

Fine visuomotor skills in amblyopia: a systematic review and meta-analysis

BackgroundAmblyopia is characterised by reduced visual acuity, poor binocular sensory fusion, and impaired or absent stereoacuity. Understanding the extent to which amblyopia affects everyday task performance is important to quantifying...

Comparing the Performance of ChatGPT-4 and Medical Students on MCQs at Varied Levels of Bloom's Taxonomy.

This research investigated the capabilities of ChatGPT-4 compared to medical students in answering MCQs using the revised Bloom's Taxonomy as a benchmark. A cross-sectional study was conducted at The University of the West Indies, Barbados. ChatGPT-4 and medical students were assessed on MCQs from various medical courses using computer-based testing. The study included 304 MCQs. Students demonstrated good knowledge, with 78% correctly answering at least 90% of the questions. However, ChatGPT-4 achieved a higher overall score (73.7%) compared to students (66.7%). Course type significantly affected ChatGPT-4's performance, but revised Bloom's Taxonomy levels did not. A detailed association check between program levels and Bloom's taxonomy levels for correct answers by ChatGPT-4 showed a highly significant correlation (p<0.001), reflecting a concentration of "remember-level" questions in preclinical and "evaluate-level" questions in clinical courses. The study highlights ChatGPT-4's proficiency in standardized tests but indicates limitations in clinical reasoning and practical skills. This performance discrepancy suggests that the effectiveness of artificial intelligence (AI) varies based on course content. While ChatGPT-4 shows promise as an educational tool, its role should be supplementary, with strategic integration into medical education to leverage its strengths and address limitations. Further research is needed to explore AI's impact on medical education and student performance across educational levels and courses.

Influencing Factors of Chinese Proficiency Test Learning Application Under the Framework of Seamless Learning

With the development of modern information technology and network society, the era of digital transformation has arrived, many educational resources have been developed and utilized, and the problem of space-time separation of global Chinese learners is gradually being solved. The use of mobile application learning can achieve convenient and fast learning, reduce learning costs, and flexibly adjust learning progress. After experiencing COVID-19, the demand for human-computer interaction in mobile learning is even more necessary. Therefore, to make applications achieve seamless docking with the needs of learners in the design of learning, the research investigates and analyzes the five dimensions of time, space, mode, subject, and object. The research tests the reliability and validity of the questionnaire, removes the relevant items and conducts non-parametric tests, then puts forward corresponding strategies according to the results of the questionnaire. It aims to enhance the efficiency of Chinese learners in HSK (Hanyu Shuiping Kaoshi, Chinese Proficiency Test) learning and promote Chinese learning and the spread of the Chinese language and culture.

Analysis of immunogenetics interlaboratory comparisons' success rates. External quality assurance system of the Spanish Society for Immunology GECLID-SEI.

For many years, transplantation outcomes were uncertain and not hopeful, until histocompatibility testing spread. Common criteria for histocompatibility assays and communications' improvement allowed an efficient organ sharing system. The possibility of organ exchanges is closely linked to the importance of interlaboratory comparisons for histocompatibility and immunogenetics methods. The external proficiency testing (EPT) systems are the most powerful quality assurance tools. They help achieve harmonization of analyses, set a standard of performance, and a common interpretation. The external quality assurance program for diagnostic immunology laboratories (Garantía Externa de Calidad para Laboratorios de Inmunología Diagnóstica, GECLID) program nowadays runs 13 external quality assurance (EQA) histocompatibility and immunogenetics schemes, with the first of them from 2011 to date: serological and molecular: low- and high-resolution human leukocyte antigen (HLA), human platelet antigen (HPA), and killer inhibitory receptor (KIR) typing(HLA-B*27, HLA-B*57:01, and coeliac disease-related HLA), cell-dependent cytotoxicity (CDC) and flow cytometry (FC) crossmatches, anti-HLA and anti-HPA antibodies, and chimerism. A total of 85 laboratories participated in this subprogram in the last 12years reporting over 1.69M results: 1.46M for anti-HLA and anti-HPA antibodies, 203.810 molecular typing data (HLA, HPA, and KIR genes), 2.372 for chimerism analyses, and 39.352 for crossmatches. Based on the European Federation for Immunogenetics (EFI) standards for EPT providers, the mean success rates ranged from 99.2% for molecular typing schemes and antibodies and 94.8% for chimerism, was 96.7% regarding crossmatches, and was 98.9% in serological typing. In 2022, 61.3% of the participating laboratories successfully passed every HLA EQA scheme, although 87.9% annual reports were satisfactory. Most penalties were due to nomenclature errors or misreporting of the risk associated to HLA and disease. This EQA confirms the reliability of HLA and immunogenetics assays in routine care. There is little heterogeneity of results of different assays used by participating laboratories, even when in-house assays are used. Reliability of test results is reasonably granted.

The Influence of Learning Strategy on the English Oral Proficiency of English Majors under the Background of Media Convergence

With the gradual development of information and media technologies, more and more tools are available in the process of language learning. In this context, the impact of the use of learning strategies on the spoken English proficiency of English majors has received widespread attention. In this study, the use of metacognitive, cognitive, and social-emotional strategies on the learning strategies of oral English was studied through questionnaires and oral English proficiency tests. The results show that the frequency of use of different learning strategies is significantly positively correlated with the oral English level of English majors in the context of media integration, that is, the use of learning strategies has a positive effect on the improvement of English-speaking level of English majors.

Fostering Mathematical Proficiency and Creative Thinking Skills in 10th Grade Students Through the 5E Inquiry-Based Learning Approach with Supplementary Media

This research aims to enhance mathematical proficiency and stimulate creative thinking among 10th-grade students through the implementation of the 5E Inquiry-Based Learning approach with Supplementary Media. The study explores the effectiveness of this pedagogical approach in transforming the learning experience and outcomes in mathematics education. The study focused on comparing students&amp;#39; performance before and after the intervention, as well as investigating their creative thinking abilities in terms of flexibility, originality, fluency, and elaboration. The participants consisted of 10th-grade students from a large-sized school in the northeastern region of Thailand, specifically one classroom comprising 40 students. The tools include Lesson plans, Mathematics Proficiency test and Creative thinking skills test. The results revealed a significant improvement in mathematical proficiency following the implementation of the 5E Inquiry-Based Learning Approach with supplementary media, with a notable increase of 37.25%. Prior to the intervention, students scored an average of 4.64 out of 20, which increased to 12.08 out of 20 post-intervention. Furthermore, the investigation into creative thinking skills indicated that students exhibited a proficient level overall, with an average score of 22.60 out of a maximum of 32 points. The analysis of specific dimensions of creative thinking revealed average scores of 5.60 for Originality, 5.78 for Fluency, 5.63 for Flexibility, and 5.60 for Elaboration.

Limitations of ELP Tests in Predicting Academic Achievement in the Middle East: A Case Study of the University of Sharjah’s EFL Students Majoring in Business

This article discusses the limitations of language proficiency tests in predicting academic performance among business students at the University of Sharjah. It focuses on EFL students who had been instructed in Arabic before joining the university. Using a regression analysis model, the article demonstrates that students’ weakness in writing proficiency cannot be predicted by standardized tests such as the TOEFL and the IELTS. The proposed method uses several alternative variables that can more resourcefully investigate such weakness. The study ended with germane recommendations to EFL teachers and syllabus designers for the enhancement of writing proficiency among this category of students.

Aluminium Determination in Foodstuffs by ICP-MS: Influence of Microwave Digestion Parameters on the Recovery

Aluminium (Al) is the third most common element in the Earth’s crust and occurs naturally in drinking water and agricultural products, and humans are consequently exposed to the element from dietary sources. A tolerable weekly intake of 1 mg/kg has been established by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA); however, no maximum levels for aluminium in foodstuffs have so far been established in the European Union (EU) legislation. Official food control requires validated methods for the determination of aluminium. Acid digestion assisted by microwaves is the main sample preparation technique used for the determination of aluminium, usually in combination with atomic spectrometry for quantification. In the present study, different parameters in the digestion step were investigated including test portion, digestion temperature, the reagent used and duration of the digestion to assess the aluminium extraction. The presented work is following up on an observation from a proficiency test (PT) on trace elements (including aluminium) in cocoa powder organised in 2020 by the European Union Reference Laboratory for metals and nitrogenous compounds in feed and food (EURL-MN), where the participant results for aluminium showed an unexpectedly large variation. In addition to the PT material, different certified reference materials were included in the present study, and the results highlighted that the temperature and reagent used are the most critical parameters to obtain a satisfactory sample digestion prior to aluminium determination. Based on the obtained results, it is recommended to digest food samples with a mix of ultrapure water and nitric acid for 25 min at a temperature of at least 240 °C with a mix of HNO3 and H2O to achieve satisfactory microwave-assisted digestion.

English medium instruction learners’ self-efficacy, engagement, and satisfaction; developing a measurement instrument

ABSTRACT This paper describes the development of a survey instrument to measure learners’ self-efficacy, engagement, and satisfaction within the context of English Medium Instruction (EMI) classes, with reference to both language issues and the discipline being taught. The paper presents details of analysis of the instrument using the Rasch model. The survey was administered to 287 tertiary students enrolled in EMI classes in Japan. Results of a Rasch Principal Components Analysis of Residuals showed the three intended constructs to be largely unidimensional. Item-level analysis, as well as reliability and separation measures and an investigation of Wright maps, provided further evidence that the items are working adequately to measure each of the three constructs and to allow differentiation between levels of each construct among the respondents. In addition, the effectiveness of the 6-point Likert scale used was confirmed with an analysis of category structure functioning. Finally, a correlation analysis with a subset (n = 97) of the participants for which English proficiency test scores were available was conducted. Results showed a small, statistically significant and positive relationship between reading proficiency and each of the three constructs.

KoCVAM-led development of phototoxicity alternative test method using reconstructed human epidermis model (KeraSkin™)

Phototoxicity is an acute toxic reaction induced by topical skin exposure to photoreactive chemicals followed by exposure to environmental light and thus chemicals that absorb UV are recommended to be evaluated for phototoxic potential. There are currently three internationally harmonized alternative test methods for phototoxicity. One of them is the in vitro Phototoxicity: RhE Phototoxicity test method (OECD TG498).Korean center for the Validation of Alternative Methods (KoCVAM) developed an in vitro phototoxicity test method using a KeraSkin™ reconstructed human epidermis model (KeraSkin™ Phototoxicity Assay) as a ‘me-too’ test method of OECD TG498.For the development and optimization of KeraSkin™ Phototoxicity Assay, the following test chemicals were used: 6 proficiency chemicals in OECD TG498 (3 phototoxic and 3 non-phototoxic), 6 reference chemicals in OECD Performance Standard No. 356 (excluding the proficiency test chemicals, 3 phototoxic and 3 non-phototoxic) and 13 additional chemicals (7 phototoxic and 6 non-phototoxic). Based on the test results generated from the test chemicals above, the overall predictive capacity of KeraSkin™ Phototoxicity Assay was calculated. In particular, the assay exhibited 100 % accuracy, 100 % sensitivity, and 100 % specificity. Therefore, it fulfills the requirements to be included as a ‘me-too’ test method in OECD TG498.

Examining Performance on an Integrated Writing Task from a Canadian English Language Proficiency Test

Many English language proficiency (ELP) tests used for university admissions and placement now include integrated writing tasks that require examinees to use external sources when writing. Integrated writing tasks improve test authenticity and impact, but they raise several validity questions, such as what academic language skills they engage and whether performance on these tasks varies with examinee ELP level. This study addresses these questions with reference to an integrated writing task from the Canadian Academic English Language (CAEL) Test that involves reading, listening, and writing in academic contexts. Responses by 59 students to one of the CAEL integrated writing tasks are analyzed in terms of various grammatical, discourse, sociolinguistic, strategic, content, and source use aspects and compared across ELP levels (high and low) and score levels. The findings indicate that both ELP level and score level had significant effects on most writing features examined in the study, except for syntactic complexity. Additionally, except for syntactic complexity, all writing dimensions examined in the study were significantly associated with writing scores. The findings and their implications for the validity argument of source-based writing tasks are discussed.

Continued improvement in the development of the SARS-CoV-2 whole genome sequencing proficiency testing program

Application of whole genome sequencing (WGS) has allowed monitoring of the emergence of variants of concern (VOC) of severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) globally. Genomic investigation of emerging variants and surveillance of clinical progress has reduced the public health impact of infection during the COVID-19 pandemic. These steps required developing and implementing a proficiency testing program (PTP), as WGS has been incorporated into routine reference laboratory practice. In this study, we describe how the PTP evaluated the capacity and capability of one New Zealand and 14 Australian public health laboratories to perform WGS of SARS-CoV-2 in 2022. The participants' performances in characterising a specimen panel of known SARS-CoV-2 isolates in the PTP were assessed based on: (1) genome coverage, (2) Pango lineage, and (3) sequence quality, with the choice of assessment metrics refined based on a previously reported assessment conducted in 2021. The participants' performances in 2021 and 2022 were also compared after reassessing the 2021 results using the more stringent metrics adopted in 2022. We found that more participants would have failed the 2021 assessment for all survey samples and a significantly higher fail rate per sample in 2021 compared to 2022. This study highlights the importance of choosing appropriate performance metrics to reflect better the laboratories' capacity to perform SARS-CoV-2 WGS, as was done in the 2022 PTP. It also displays the need for a PTP for WGS of SARS-CoV-2 to be available to public health laboratories ongoing, with continuous refinements in the design and provision of the PTP to account for the dynamic nature of the COVID-19 pandemic as SARS-CoV-2 continues to evolve.

Use of carbonyldiimidazole as a derivatization agent for the detection of pinacolyl alcohol, a forensic marker for Soman, by EI-GC-MS and LC-HRMS in official OPCW proficiency test matrices.

Pinacolyl alcohol (PA), a key forensic marker for the nerve agent Soman (GD), is a particularly difficult analyte to detect by various analytical methods. In this work, we have explored the reaction between PA and 1,1'-carbonyldiimidazole (CDI) to yield pinacolyl 1H-imidazole-1-carboxylate (PIC), a product that can be conveniently detected by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and liquid chromatography-high-resolution mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS). Regarding its GC-MS profile, this new carbamate derivative of PA possesses favorable chromatographic features such as a sharp peak and a longer retention time (RT = 16.62 min) relative to PA (broad peak and short retention time, RT = 4.1 min). The derivative can also be detected by LC-HRMS, providing an avenue for the analysis of this chemical using this technique where PA is virtually undetectable unless present in large concentrations. From a forensic science standpoint, detection of this low molecular weight alcohol signals the past or latent presence of the nerve agent Soman (GD) in a given matrix (i.e., environmental or biological). The efficiency of the protocol was tested separately in the analysis and detection of PA by EI-GC-MS and LC-HRMS when present at a 10 μg/mL in a soil matrix featured in the 44th PT and in a glycerol-rich liquid matrix featured in the 48th Official Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) Proficiency Test when present at a 5 μg/mL concentration. In both scenarios, PA was successfully transformed into PIC, establishing the protocol as an additional tool for the analysis of this unnatural and unique nerve agent marker by GC-MS and LC-HRMS.