ABSTRACTUnderstanding the mechanisms of competition and coexistence among sympatric species is crucial for deepening our understanding of interspecific interactions and informing the conservation of rare and endangered wildlife. In this study, we utilized DNA macro‐barcoding technology to analyze the seasonal dietary habits of Kiang (Equus kiang) and Tibetan Gazelle (Procapra picticaudata) in Shiqu County, Sichuan Province, aiming to investigate their resource partitioning strategies and potential competition for limited forage resources. The results showed that Kiang mainly consumed Cyperaceae and Polygonaceae in both seasons, while Tibetan Gazelle fed on Polygonaceae and Rosaceae in the warm season and shifted to Ephedraceae in the cold season. Both species exhibited significant seasonal differences in dietary composition, with Tibetan Gazelle showing greater individual variation and seasonal shifts. In addition, their dietary niche was broader in the warm season, and overlap remained high, with indices of 0.89 and 0.87 in the warm and cold seasons, respectively. The results indicate that although Kiang and Tibetan Gazelle exhibit partial dietary overlap, they mitigate interspecific competition and achieve sympatric coexistence through differential use of dominant forage species, adjustments in dietary proportions, and individual dietary flexibility; notably, Tibetan gazelles exhibit stronger ecological adaptability. This study highlights a competition–coexistence dynamic along the trophic niche axis in typical plateau ungulates, providing insights for effective conservation strategies and biodiversity conservation in plateau regions.

Species interactions are crucial for understanding how species will respond to future climate change. Incorporating interspecific relationships into mammalian distribution prediction models will significantly impact model outcomes, especially those for animals on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau (QTP). Thus, we incorporated interspecific relationships into species distribution models to assess and predict the future distributions of five ungulates, including the Red deer (Cervus elaphus), the Kiang (Equus kiang), the Tibetan gazelle (Procapra picticaudata), the Tibetan antelope (Pantholops hodgsonii), and the Bharal (Pseudois nayaur). We found that (1) the suitable habitats of these five ungulates were all predicted to increase between the present and 2050; (2) the suitable distribution areas of four of these ungulates were predicted to be smaller when interspecific relationships were incorporated into the models, with the exception of the Red deer, whose suitable habitat was estimated to be larger; and (3) the centroids of suitable habitat for the five ungulates were predicted to shift to the southern part of the QTP by 2050. Our results demonstrated that interspecific relationships could influence predictions of species distributions, and thus incorporating interspecific relationships will facilitate better assessments and predictions of the future distributions of species.

Sanjiangyuan National Park (SNP), the first national park established in China, plays a pivotal role in conserving biodiversity on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. This study investigates the habitat suitability and projected future distribution of four key species: the Tibetan antelope (Pantholops hodgsonii), kiang (Equus kiang), Tibetan gazelle (Procapra picticaudata), and wild yak (Bos mutus). Utilizing 358 occurrence records and the MaxEnt model, we predicted current and future suitable habitats under different climate scenarios for the years 2050 and 2070. Our findings indicate that suitable habitats are significantly influenced by factors such as elevation, temperature, and vegetation health. Among the species studied, the Tibetan gazelle exhibits the most extensive suitable habitat, followed by the kiang, Tibetan antelope, and wild yak. Specifically, the Tibetan antelope’s habitat is anticipated to shift northward, while the kiang and wild yak may experience further habitat fragmentation, thereby increasing risks to their populations. Additionally, the results highlight the importance of integrating climate considerations into future conservation planning to ensure the long-term survival of these species. By identifying regions with optimal environmental conditions, conservation strategies can be more effectively directed to maintain and improve these habitats, thereby preserving biodiversity within the Sanjiangyuan region.Supplementary InformationThe online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1038/s41598-025-23536-4.

Environmental factors, including climatic and habitat conditions, not only critically sustain ecosystem functioning and community stability but also serve as key determinants of species distributions. Research on the instant effects of environmental factors impacts remains limited. Although traditional methods, such as species distribution model, are commonly applied to assess environmental effects, they frequently overlook interspecific interactions that may determine distribution patterns. In this study, we employed a joint species distribution model and a generalized additive model to analyze the lagged responses of 2022-2023 geographic distribution patterns to historical habitat conditions (2001-2019) in four widespread high-elevation ungulates (Equus kiang, Pantholops hodgsonii, Procapra picticaudata, and Bos mutus) on the Tibetan Plateau, defining this delayed response of animal distributions to environmental changes as the distribution lag effect (DLE). Our analysis revealed that while climate strongly influenced species distributions, habitat change drove most observed delays in distribution responses. In terms of community ecology, dispersed communities exhibited shorter time lags than concentrated groups. Analyses of lag duration revealed a 5-6-year DLE in high-altitude ungulate distributions. Our results provide valuable insights into sustainable alpine steppe management by highlighting the importance of maintaining habitat quality and mitigating resource competition over time. Furthermore, it offers guidance for the long-term conservation of high-altitude ungulate species.

Ecological adaptation mechanisms of plateau ungulates to seasonal nomadic pastoralism on the eastern Qinghai-Tibetan plateau

Procapra picticaudata is endemic to the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau that possesses both keystone and flagship qualities. The Tangbei Area (north of the Tanggula Mountains) in the Sanjiangyuan National Park is one of the core distribution areas for P. picticaudata. Both population size and extinction risk of P. picticaudata are concerning for conservation and action is needed. We conducted line transect surveys and infrared camera monitoring from August 2023 to March 2024, collected 66 distribution sites of P. picticaudata recorded in the Tangbei Area. Using the MaxEnt ecological niche model, we analyzed the habitat suitability for P. picticaudata, incorporating bioclimatic factors, topographic factors, and environmental variables associated with human activities. Our results showed that the average suitable habitat area annually for P. picticaudata in Tangbei Area was 2.236 × 104 km2, which comprised 33% of the study area. Important environmental factors included distance to roads (26.8%), isothermality (24.5%), precipitation of the coldest quarter (15.9%), and annual precipitation (13.0%). The average seasonal suitable habitat area in winter was 1.875×104 km2(27.7%) and 2.063×104 km2(30.5%) in summer. The factors contributing to winter suitability included mean diurnal range (41.1%), distance to roads (25.3%), precipitation of the wettest month (22.0%), and slope (3.3%). The factors that contributed to summer suitability included isothermality (28.2%), annual precipitation (22.8%), distance to roads (22.8%), and annual mean temperature (10.5%). By identifying the seasonal habitat distribution pattern and environmental variables affecting P. picticaudata habitat in Tangbei Area, our results provide a scientific basis to inform conservation action.

Understanding the change in the habitat distributions and abundance of wildlife in space and time is critical for the conservation of biodiversity and mitigate human–wildlife conflicts (HWCs). Tibetan antelope or chiru (Pantholops hodgsonii), Tibetan gazelle or goa (Procapra picticaudata), Tibetan wild ass or kiang (Equus kiang), and Wild yak (Bos mutus) have been sympatric on the Qinghai–Tibetan plateau (QTP) for numerous generations. However, reviews on the habitat distributions and abundance of these four wild herbivores (WHs), as well as the methods examining the changes in these aspects, are still lacking. Here, we firstly review the distributions and abundance of four major WHs on the QTP across different periods, examining the underlying causes of changes and HWCs. Furthermore, we critically compare three aspects of methods: transect surveys, machine learning (ML), and deep learning (DL) methods of studying WHs. The results show that since the 1990s, the distributions and abundance of WHs have exhibited a trend of initial decline followed by recovery, largely attributed to global climate warming and a decrease in illegal hunting. However, in recent years, the primary challenge has shifted from wildlife protection to balancing the human and wildlife interests within the constraints of limited resources. In the future, we should focus on enhancing the ecological functions of habitats to achieve harmonious coexistence between humans and nature, as well as establishing a scientific compensation mechanism to mitigate human–wildlife conflicts. In order to accurately calculate the changes, we should select appropriate models to analyze the habitats of wildlife based on their specific characteristics and the environmental conditions. Additionally, with the advancement of large models, AI (artificial intelligence) should be utilized for precise and rapid wildlife conservation. The findings of this study also provide guidance and reference for addressing the issues related to wildlife habitats and abundance in other regions globally.

Ungulates are essential for maintaining the health of grassland ecosystems on the Tibetan plateau. Increased livestock grazing has caused competition for food resources, threatening ungulates’ survival. The survival risk of food resources for ungulates can be quantified by the grazing pressure index, which requires accurate grassland carrying capacity. Previous research on the grazing pressure index has rarely taken into account the influence of wild ungulates, mainly due to the lack of precise spatial data on their quantity. In this study, we conducted field investigations to construct high-resolution spatial distributions for the four endemic ungulates on the Tibetan plateau. By factoring in the grazing consumption of these ungulates, we recalculated the grassland carrying capacity to obtain the grazing pressure index, which allowed us to assess the survival risks for each species. The results show: (1) Quantity estimates for Tibetan antelope (Pantholops hodgsonii), Tibetan wild donkey (Equus kiang), Tibetan gazelle (Procapra picticaudata), and wild yak (Bos mutus) of the Tibetan plateau are 24.57 × 104, 17.93 × 104, 7.16 × 104, and 1.88 × 104, respectively; they mainly distributed in the northern and western regions of the Tibetan plateau. (2) The grassland carrying capacity of the Tibetan plateau is 69.98 million sheep units, with ungulate grazing accounting for 5% of forage utilization. Alpine meadow and alpine steppe exhibit the highest grassland carrying capacity. (3) The grazing pressure index on the Tibetan plateau grasslands is 2.23, indicating a heightened grazing pressure in the southern and eastern regions. (4) The habitat survival risk analysis indicates that the high survival risk (the grazing pressure index exceeds 1.2) areas for the four ungulate species account for the following proportions of their total habitat areas: Tibetan wild donkeys (49.76%), Tibetan gazelles (47.00%), Tibetan antelopes (40.76%), and wild yaks (34.83%). These high-risk areas are primarily located within alpine meadow and temperate desert steppe. This study provides a quantitative assessment of survival risks for these four ungulate species on the Tibetan plateau grasslands and serves as a valuable reference for ungulate conservation and grassland ecosystem management.

Procapra picticaudata is an ungulate endemic to the Tibetan Plateau and is widely distributed in the Three-River-Source region. Predicting the seasonal variations in habitat suitability and understanding the effects of environmental variables on habitat use by this species will help formulate effective conservation strategies and clarify its niche characteristics. Based on point records of the occurrence collected during repeated field surveys in winter (January 2019) and summer (August 2019), we used MaxEnt model to predict the differences in habitat suitability and the distribution pattern of the P. picticaudata in the Three-River-Source region using eight preselected environmental variables. We further explored the influence of those variables on the P. picticaudata' distribution pattern using environmental response curves. The results showed that the average area under the receiving operator curve values in winter and summer was 0.901±0.023 and 0.882±0.024, respectively, with a good accuracy of fitness. The total area of suitable habitat for P. picticaudata in winter and summer was 6.83×104 and 9.78×104 km2, respectively. The area of suitable habitats in summer increased significantly compared with winter. There was a tendency for P. picticaudata to spread to the south of the Yangtze River Source Park and the Yellow River Source Park in summer. The spatial patterns of habitat suitability in both winter and summer took Three-River-Source National Park as the high-value center and decreased around it. The seasonal average temperature, altitude, population density, and slope were the main environmental variables affecting the distribution of P. picticaudata both in winter and summer. The higher temperatures in summer allowed the suitable P. picticaudata habitats to extend into areas above 5000 m in altitude, and to areas with slopes of less than 25°, compared with winter. The expansion of human activities in summer encroached on the suitable habitat of P. picticaudata.

Molybdenum (Mo), an essential mineral, plays a key role in the vital activity of the organism. However, excess Mo in the forage will cause loss of appetite, diarrhea, emaciation, bone injury, joint abnormalities, and anemia in animals. In order to study molybdenosis in the Procapra picticaudata in the animal rescue center, samples of soils, forages, blood, and liver were collected. The mineral contents of all samples were determined, and the blood parameters were also measured. The results showed that the Mo level in the soil and forage in the animal rescue center was significantly higher than that in healthy pastures (p < 0.01). The Mo concentrations in the blood and liver in the P. picticaudata from the animal rescue center were also noticeably higher than those in healthy animals (p < 0.01). The level of Cu in the blood and liver were noticeably lower than those in healthy P. picticaudata (p < 0.01). The superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px), total antioxidant capacity (T-AOC), and catalase (CAT) were significantly lower than those in healthy animals. Supplementing copper sulfate (CuSO4) could significantly decrease the Mo content in the blood, and cure molybdenosis. In summary, the excessive Mo content in the soil and forage in the animal rescue center had greatly affected physiological parameters and antioxidant capacity. It is likely that the molybdenosis of the P. picticaudata is caused by the high Mo contents in soils and forages. CuSO4 may alleviate molybdenosis in P. picticaudata.

The wild large herbivores inhabiting the Yellow-River-Source National Park (YRSNP) are confronted with a significant threat from climate change and human activities. In response to these detrimental influences, measures have been proposed by the government, such as the Ecological Conservation and Restoration Project in the Sanjiangyuan Region (ECRPSR) and the establishment of the Sanjiangyuan National Park (SNP). To advance species diversity, it is crucial to investigate the spatial distribution of large herbivores, identify factors influencing their distribution, and address conflicts arising from divergent plans within the YRSNP. In this study, unmanned aerial vehicles were employed for surveying the distribution of the Tibetan wild ass (Equus kiang) and Tibetan gazelle (Procapra picticaudata). The findings indicate that the optimal habitat area for Tibetan wild ass is 437.16 km2, while for Tibetan gazelle, it is 776.46 km2. Precipitation and the human footprint index emerge as the primary factors influencing the habitat distribution of large herbivores within the YRSNP. Under the influence of the ECRPSR, there was a noteworthy expansion of the habitat area for Tibetan wild ass by 791.25 km2, and for Tibetan gazelle, it expanded by 1612.94 km2. From a wildlife conservation standpoint, this study proposes the establishment of a wildlife refuge in the YRSNP, effective coordination of conflicts between various functional zones and plans, preservation of suitable habitats for large herbivores, and the provision of a scientific foundation to reconcile development and conservation conflicts in the region, while concurrently fostering biodiversity conservation.

Distributions of two native ungulates at the third pole are highly sensitive to global warming

Behavior affects an individual's life in all aspects, e.g., enhancing fitness, leveraging predation risk, and reducing competition with conspecifics. However, the sequential distribution of behaviors received less attention and is unclear what the function of displacement behavior is. Displacement activities can be found in vertebrate species but there is no formal method to determine whether a behavior is expressed as a displaced or normal activity. Analyzing the sequential distributions of behaviors in a natural setting may allow researchers to identify unexpected distributions as a possible signature of displacement activities. In this study, we used a behavior random permutation model to detect the presence of a displacement activity in the Tibetan antelope Pantholops hodgsonii and the Tibetan gazelle Procapra picticaudata. The results showed that grooming in both ungulates tended to be accompanied with vigilance, and the frequency of grooming after vigilance was significantly higher than before vigilance. A significant positive correlation between the scan rate and grooming rate in the 2 ungulates was obtained. We suggest that grooming could sometimes be expressed as a displacement activity in ungulates. In addition to providing a general method for further research on displacement activities in a variety of animal species, this study sheds light on the importance of a spectral analysis of sequential distribution of animal behaviors. Behavior random permutation models can be used to explore the relevance between any 2 behaviors in a specific sequence, especially to identify a myriad of unexpected behaviors relative to their normal context of occurrence.

Mammal gastrointestinal tracts harbor diverse bacterial communities that play important roles in digestion, development, behavior, and immune function. Although, there is an increasing understanding of the factors that affect microbial community composition in laboratory populations, the impact of environment and host community composition on microbiomes in wild populations is less understood. Given that the composition of bacterial communities can be shaped by ecological factors, particularly exposure to the microbiome of other individuals, inter-specific interactions should impact on microbiome community composition. Here, we evaluated inter-population and inter-specific similarity in the fecal microbiota of Przewalski’s gazelle (Procapra przewalskii), an endangered endemic ruminant around Qinghai Lake in China. We compared the fecal bacterial communities of three Przewalski’s gazelle populations, with those of two sympatric ruminants, Tibetan gazelle (Procapra picticaudata) and Tibetan sheep (Ovis aries). The fecal bacterial community richness (Chao1, ACE) did not vary across the three Przewalski’s gazelle populations, nor did the composition vary between species. In contrast, the managed Przewalski’s gazelle population had higher bacterial diversity (Shannon and Simpson) and was more similar to its sympatric Tibetan sheep in beta diversity than the wild Przewalski’s gazelle populations. These results suggest that ecological factors like host community composition or diet affect Przewalski’s gazelle’s gastrointestinal bacterial community. The role of bacterial community composition in maintaining gastrointestinal health should be assessed to improve conservation management of endangered Przewalski’s gazelle. More broadly, captive breeding and reintroduction efforts may be impeded, where captive management results in dysbiosis and introduction of pathogenic bacteria. In free ranging populations, where wildlife and livestock co-occur, infection by domestic pathogens and diseases may be an underappreciated threat to wild animals.

Wild ungulates are an important part of terrestrial ecosystems and play a critical role in maintaining ecosystem health and integrity. In many grassland ecosystems that are habituated by wild ungulates, the coexistence of domestic ungulates has created a conflict over grazing resources. Solving this conflict requires a balanced and sustainable policy that satisfies both the needs of wildlife protection and food production. Here, we assess the optimal grassland livestock carrying capacity of an alpine grassland on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, given the coexistence of wild populations of kiangs (Equus kiang) and Tibetan gazelles (Procapra picticaudata), two key species grazing in this region. We use kriging and the MaxEnt method to estimate the population sizes of kiangs and Tibetan gazelles in Maduo County, Qinghai Province. We then convert the estimated population size of the two species into sheep units and calculate the residual carrying capacity for livestock grazing. We show that after accounting for the grazing need for kiangs and Tibetan gazelles, grassland in Maduo is capable of supporting 420,641 sheep units, which is slightly more than the current livestock population. However, the residual carrying capacity is highly uneven across the region, and overgrazing is found in many areas of Maduo, especially in northern Maduo. This research provides a useful framework for planning sustainable livestock farming for the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau and other regions facing wildlife-livestock conflict.

The four antelope species on the Qinghai-Tibet plateau face habitat loss and redistribution to higher latitudes under climate change

Simple SummaryLike plants, animal-based remedies are being utilized traditionally in different cultures around the globe. We explored the traditional usage of wild animals by the local inhabitants in Ladakh area of Trans-Himalayan region, India, using questionnaires and interviews. Furthermore, associations between ethnozoological usage and animal species were also evaluated through multivariate ecological community analysis. The highest priority of local inhabitants was for food followed by medicinal usage. We documented therapeutic uses of 48% of the reported species. Among these Alectoris chukar (chukar), Cuon alpinus (Asiatic wild dog), Lepus oiostolus (hares), Marmota himalayana (marmots), Ovis aries vignei (Ladakh urial), Pantholops hodgsonii (Tibetan antelope), Procapra picticaudata (Tibetan gazelle), Pseudois nayaur (blue sheep), Tetraogallus himalayensis (Himalayan snow), Tetraogallus tibetanus (Tibetan snow cock), and Lutra lutra (common otter) were reported for the first time from this region and are being used for medicinal purpose. Our findings could be valuable as reference data for policymakers, researchers, land managers, common public, and the other stakeholders to develop logical and scientific approaches for sustainable use of faunal diversity in biodiversity hotspot regions.Zootherapy is accepted all around the globe not only in ancient cultures but different animal derived medicines are also part of the practice in the modern health care systems. The present study assessed the traditional ethnozoological usage of wild animals by local inhabitants in Ladakh region, India, and the reference data for scientific approaches for protection of faunal diversity in trans-Himalayas. The ethnozoological documentation of the animals in Ladakh was carried out through semistructured and close-ended questionnaire surveys and interviews. Multivariate ecological community analysis was used to elucidate the relationship between ethnozoological usage and animal species. Our results showed three animal usage clusters with 32% similarity. Moreover, the similarity in animal usage between digging tools, trophy, handle of tools, decoration, and matting, showed less than 32% of similarity. The highest priority of local people was for food followed by decoration and medicinal usage. The most frequently used animal parts were meat followed by fur and horn. Medicinal uses of 48% of the reported species, i.e., Alectoris chukar (chukar), Cuon alpinus (Asiatic wild dog), Lepus oiostolus (hares), Marmota himalayana (marmots), Ovis aries vignei (Ladakh urial), Pantholops hodgsonii (Tibetan antelope), Procapra picticaudata (Tibetan gazelle), Pseudois nayaur (blue sheep), Tetraogallus himalayensis (Himalayan snow), Tetraogallus tibetanus (Tibetan snow cock), and Lutra lutra (common otter) were reported for the first time from this region. Our study provides innovative information regarding the ethnozoological knowledge in the Ladakh region and reference data for policymakers, researchers, land managers, common public, and the other stakeholders to develop logical and scientific approaches for sustainable use of faunal diversity in hotspot regions like trans-Himalayas and other similar biodiversity-rich sites.

The carrying pressure of livestock is higher than that of large wild herbivores in Yellow River source area, China

Tibetan gazelle (Procapra picticaudata) is an endangered ungulate in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, China. This study aimed to determine the influence of nano-Se on antioxidant system in Se-deprived P. picticaudata. We analyzed contents of mineral elements in soil, forage, and animal tissue. Blood parameters and antioxidant indexes were also determined. The results showed that Se concentrations in the soil and forage from affected pasture were significantly lower than those in healthy area (P < 0.01). Se concentrations in blood and hair from affected P. picticaudata were also significantly lower than those in healthy animals (P < 0.01). Meanwhile, the levels of Hb, RBC, and PCV in affected gazelle were significantly lower than those in healthy animal (P < 0.01). The activities of AST, ALT, LDH, CK, and UA content in affected animal were significantly lower than those in healthy gazelles (P < 0.01). The levels of SOD, GSH-Px, CAT, and T-AOC in serum were significantly lower and the MDA content was significantly higher in affected compared with healthy gazelle (P < 0.01). Affected P. picticaudata were treated orally with nano-Se, Se concentration in blood significantly increased and serum antioxidant indexes greatly returned to within the healthy range. Consequently, nano-Se could not only markedly increase the Se content in blood in Se-deprived P. picticaudata but also much improves the antioxidant capacity.

Abstract Vigilance is important for anti‐predation, and different animals adopt different vigilance strategies. Instantaneous and sequential randomness in vigilance behavior are two main principles for the classic Pulliam model (1973). Given this context, we studied the vigilance behaviors in two wild cloven‐hoofed animals, the Tibetan antelope (Pantholops hodgsonii) and the Tibetan gazelle (Procapra picticaudata) on Qinghai–Tibet Plateau, to explore if the two randomness principles work across species. The results showed that the distribution of inter‐scan intervals of both Tibetan antelope and Tibetan gazelle followed the negative exponential distribution; inter‐scans of both Tibetan antelope and Tibetan gazelle were unrelated with their previous scan, and most sequences of inter‐scan intervals could be considered as random organized or unpredictable. In conclusion, the vigilance patterns of Tibetan antelope and Tibetan gazelle followed instantaneous randomness and sequential randomness of Pulliam model. A random vigilance strategy might be the best choice for Tibetan ungulates, and how to distinguish the social vigilance from anti‐predator vigilance is an important issue for future research.