Probability Of Drug Use Research Articles

Sex differences in the consumption of over-the-counter analgesics among amateur volleyball players

BackgroundCompared with the normal adult population, athletes of several sport disciplines, such as endurance sports, ball sports, cycling and swimming, have higher use of over-the-counter analgesics (OTC analgesics). The aim of this study was to describe the epidemiology of OTC analgesic use in volleyball players as a typical competitive sport discipline. One particular focus was placed on the analysis whether the athletes’ use of OTC analgesics was influenced by their performance motivation.MethodsA cross-sectional survey among amateur volleyball players was carried out using a web-based sports questionnaire. The study included athletes of both sexes, 18 years and older, currently playing in a German volleyball league. The athletes’ sport-related complaints were evaluated regarding the use of OTC analgesics. The use of OTC analgesics by athletes was compared with their performance motivation, based on the „Achievement Motives Scale - Sport” (AMS-Sport) questionnaire.ResultsThe analysis of 114 completed questionnaires of amateur athletes revealed that the use of OTC analgesics was sex dependent, with a higher prevalence of use in female players (60%) versus male players (38%). The main reasons for consumption of OTC analgesics were pain in the head, knee and shoulder. The most frequently taken drug was ibuprofen, most often taken at competitions and over a period of 4 years (median). The analysis of the AMS-Sport questionnaire revealed that a logistic regression model for estimating the probability of drug use can be explained by the factors hope of success and years of playing practise in female players but not male players. In females, an increase in the factor hope of success resulted in a lower probability of OTC analgesic use, while an increase in years of playing practise resulted in a higher probability of use.ConclusionThe average duration that volleyball players in this study took OTC analgesics was higher than that of the German population, and OTC analgesic use was more prevalent in female than male volleyball players. Thus, to reduce the prevalence of OTC analgesic use, educational programs should be implemented in sports teams; and, to reduce direct and indirect social pressure, sports teams should also receive sex-specific psychological support.

Pharmacoeconomic Analysis of Sitagliptin/Metformin for the Treatment of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: A Cost-Effectiveness Study

ObjectivesTo assess the cost-effectiveness and cost utility of sitagliptin/metformin for the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus compared to those of glibenclamide/metformin in a semiprivate hospital and to compare the cost-effectiveness and cost utility of sitagliptin/metformin in a semiprivate hospital to those in the public health system (PHS) of Ecuador in 2019. MethodsA cost-effectiveness study considering the probability of cardiovascular death as the outcome and quality-adjusted life-year as a measure of utility, estimating direct medical costs in US dollars by a model case from the perspective of the third payer. The results will be presented as an incremental cost-effectiveness ratio. One-way and 2-way sensitivity analyses with tornado diagrams were performed. ResultsDirect medical costs were lower at the hospital than from the PHS in Ecuador. Considering the drugs metformin/sitagliptin, the total cost was $35.69 less in the hospital ($880.38) than from the comparator ($916.07). The highest percentage of direct medical costs corresponded to drugs (between 63.94% and 84.65%). An ICER of –$19 131.61 was obtained at the Hospital Un Canto a la Vida and –$1621.85 at PHS. In addition, the cost per quality-adjusted life-year earned was $611.11. Sensitivity analysis showed that the probability of drug use and the relative risk of cardiovascular death associated with such prescription were parameters that most affected the model. ConclusionsThe combination therapy metformin/sitagliptin compared to metformin/glibenclamide was shown not to be cost-effective in the Hospital Un Canto a la Vida, and highly cost-effective in the PHS.

The impact of motivational interviewing on relapse to substance use among women in Iran: a randomized clinical trial

BackgroundWomen in Iran are in great need of effective substance abuse services. The current study was conducted to investigate the effectiveness of motivational interviewing (MI) for women in treatment for drug use in Iran.MethodThe sample (N = 60) included women in a drug treatment center in Qazvin (Iran) from August to December of 2017. The research sample included 60 female drug users randomly assigned to MI or Standard Care (SC). Prior to randomization women completed a baseline questionnaire and the Relapse Prediction Scale (RPS), which measures desire (urge) to use and probability of using/not using in risky situations (self-efficacy). MI consisted of eight 60-min group sessions over a 1-month period, twice weekly. At 2-months follow-up, data were gathered using a questionnaire similar to baseline. Mixed Model Analysis were used to determine group differences.ResultsMean age of participants was 30 years and average addiction duration was 7 years. Although the scores of the desire to use and the probability of drug use were not significant before the intervention, after the intervention, scores on desire to use and probability of use improved about 81.1% (F: 2230.15, P < 0.001, degrees of freedom: 63, 15) and 81.9%, (F: 749.39, P < 0.001, degrees of freedom: 79, 77), respectively, compared to those of control group.ConclusionThe results showed that motivational interviewing could decrease desire to use and probability of use among female drug users. Motivational interviewing could play an important role in improving women’s health in Iran.Trial registrationIRCT registration number: IRCT20140907019077N4Registration date: 2017-12-12, 1396/09/21Registration timing: registered_while_recruitingLast update: 2017-12-12, 1396/09/21

Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy in Adolescent Cannabis Users: Metabolites in the Anterior Cingulate Cortex Reflects Individual Differences in Personality Traits and can Affect Rehabilitation Compliance.

The anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) has shown to play a role in impulsivity, fear, and anxiety. Considering, its high glutamate receptor density, it was chosen as a region of interest to investigate the role of glutamate transmission in drug dependance. We investigated the correlations between personality trait scores and glutamate-to-glutamine (Glx) ratio concentrations in the ACC in order to evaluate if (1) personality traits may increase the probability of drug use and (2) drug use can modify cerebral metabolic pattern contributing to addictive behaviors. Glx ratio concentrations in the ACC region were measured with high-resolution multivoxel proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy (1H-MRS). Personality traits were evaluated utilizing Cloninger's TCI-revised test. Bivariate correlations between personality scores of 28 teens cannabis users (males, mean age = 18.54 ± 2.80) were evaluated. In the ACC, we observed negative correlation between GG concentrations (r = -0.44, P = 0.05) and co-operativeness values (CO), choline (cho), and novelty seeking (NS) values (r = -0,45, P = 0.05). Low levels of glutamate and high levels of cho in the ACC were closely related to the CO and NS personality traits. Metabolic and personality patterns seems to be related to the risk of substance predisposition in adolescents. Our data contribute a possible support to the "top-down" control of the ACC on brain metabolism, due to the particular cerebral metabolic pattern found in "drug-using" adolescents.

Using probability of drug use as independent variable in a register-based pharmacoepidemiological cause-effect study-An application of the reverse waiting time distribution.

In register-based pharmacoepidemiological studies, each day of follow-up is usually categorized either as exposed or unexposed. However, there is an underlying continuous probability of exposure, and by insisting on a dichotomy, researchers unwillingly force a nondifferential misclassification into their analyses. We have recently developed a model whereby probability of exposure can be modeled, and we tested this on an empirical case of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID)-induced upper gastrointestinal bleeding (UGIB). We used a case-controls data set, consisting of 3568 cases of severe UGIB and 35552 matched controls. Exposure to NSAID was based on 3 different conventional dichotomous measures. In addition, we tested 3 probabilistic exposure measures, a simple univariate backward-recurrence model, a "full" multivariable model, and a "reduced" multivariable model. Odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals for the association between NSAID use and UGIB were calculated by conditional logistic regression, while adjusting for preselected confounders. Compared to the conventional dichotomous exposure measures, the probabilistic exposure measures generated adjusted ORs in the upper range (4.37-4.75) while at the same time having the most narrow confidence intervals (ratio between upper and lower confidence limit, 1.46-1.50). Some ORs generated by conventional measures were higher than the probabilistic ORs, but only when the assumed period of intake was unrealistically short. The pattern of high ORs and narrow confidence intervals in probabilistic exposure measures is compatible with less nondifferential misclassification of exposure than in a dichotomous exposure model. Probabilistic exposure measures appear to be an attractive alternative to conventional exposure measures.

The forecast of illicit drug use in adolescents with addictive behavior: personality traits and the level of genetic risk of substance dependence.

To clarify the psychological mechanism underlying the genetic risk of substance addiction at the first stage of drug use by adolescents. Genetic risk was evaluated by genotyping of 5 polymorphisms of the dopaminergic system genes (dopamine receptor D2 and D4 genes and tyrosine hydroxylase gene). Psychological testing was performed using the Russian version of Temperament and Character Inventory (TCI-125). Seventy-five adolescents, aged 14-17 years, (girls 32%), who misused alcohol, including 22 adolescents using drugs, were examined. The level of genetic risk was directly correlated with the probability of drug use by boys, for girls the correlation was not confirmed. The increase of the level of genetic risk for boys was correlated with the increase on the scale «Self-directedness» of TCI-125 that may reflect a probable tendency to replacement of negative information, feeling of illusory wellbeing. The findings clarify the direction of measures for the prevention of drug use.

Comparison of sentenced inmates’ drug use patterns before and during incarceration

Comparison of sentenced inmates’ drug use patterns before and during incarceration

Is Drug Utilization in Greece Sex dependent? A Population‐based Study

Despite scarce data pertaining to prescription drug sales in Greece, the lack of large-scale epidemiological studies has made it difficult to elaborate on putative differences regarding drug consumption patterns between the two sexes. Herein, we sought to investigate whether sex may have an impact on medication trends of the Greek population. The data reported are part of a survey conducted under the auspices of the National Center for Social Research. Information was collected from 2499 Athenian citizens. Probability of drug use was assessed through Pearson chi-square (χ(2) ) test and logistic regression was implemented to clarify whether sex or other socio-economic and morbidity factors may influence drug utilization. Women consumed more drugs as compared to men. Sex proved to be a differentiating factor influencing the use of analgesic/non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, cardiovascular, anxiolytic and antidepressant drugs, as well as drugs for the treatment of thyroid diseases and osteoporosis. Present results further implicate other socio-economic factors (e.g. education, employment and financial status) in the harnessing of drug use in Greece. To the best of our knowledge, this is the largest pharmacoepidemiological study to report that Greek women consume more drugs and present different medication patterns, as compared to men. Further research is considered imperative in order for the awareness of prescribers, policy-makers and the general public on this sensitive matter to be increased.

Measurement of Substance Abuse Treatment Outcomes Over Time

There are many different ways of calculating the impact of treatment on drug use; percentage of positive drug tests, probability of drug use, percentage of patients abstaining from any use, total number of days of use, daily probability of use and average days till next use, are some examples reported in the literature. We prefer average days till next use because (1) it allows intermittent drug use and relapse; (2) it fits the client's count of drug-free days, and (3) it simultaneously accounts for both tests results and time between tests. We show by way of an example, how conclusions arrived at using average days till next use are likely to be different from other measures in analysis of recent data from impact of online treatment on drug use.

Utilización habitual de medicamentos en mujeres perimenopáusicas residentes en Jaca

Objective To describe routine drug utilization in perimenopausal women and to analyze related factors. Methods We performed an observational study though face-to-face interviews with women aged 45–64 years old living in the health district of Jaca (Spain). Results Among the women studied, 69.4% routinely used drugs: 58.6% of women aged 45–54 years old and 81.6% aged 55-64 (p=0.002). Factors associated with a greater probability of drug use were postmenopausal status (p=0.011), reported chronic diseases (p<0.001), poor or very poor self-perceived health (p=0.009), and having consulted a general physician at least once in the previous year (p=0.005). Conclusions Routine drug utilization was frequent in the women studied. Drug utilization was associated with postmenopausal status, perceived health problems, and visits to general physicians.

Routine drug utilization in perimenopausal women living in Jaca (Spain)

OBJECTIVE To describe routine drug utilization in perimenopausal women and to analyze related factors. METHODS We performed an observational study though face-to-face interviews with women aged 45-64 years old living in the health district of Jaca (Spain). RESULTS Among the women studied, 69.4% routinely used drugs: 58.6% of women aged 45-54 years old and 81.6% aged 55-64 (p=0.002). Factors associated with a greater probability of drug use were postmenopausal status (p=0.011), reported chronic diseases (p<0.001), poor or very poor self-perceived health (p=0.009), and having consulted a general physician at least once in the previous year (p=0.005). CONCLUSIONS Routine drug utilization was frequent in the women studied. Drug utilization was associated with postmenopausal status, perceived health problems, and visits to general physicians.

The Juvenile and Adolescent Substance Abuse Prevention Program: An evaluation.

Today, statistics indicate a sudden increase in drug and alcohol abuse prevention programs in the school systems of the United States. This increase in drug prevention programs has been triggered by the increase in drug and alcohol use by adolescents between the ages of 12-17 years of age. According to the Youth Risk Behaviors Survey (YRBS), from the years 1991 to 1999, lifetime marijuana and cocaine use increased each year by a mode of [+ or -] 2.5% among American students in the 9th to 12th grades. Between the years 1999 to 2005, the lifetime use of both drugs decreased, but the decrease of current cocaine use (use within the 30 days prior to the survey) did not begin until 2001. Illegal steroid use increased among this same age group during the years of 1991 to 2003, and a decrease was seen from 2003 to 2005. As the new millennium begins to take shape, the use of illegal drugs has decreased and the question is, is it due to the increase of youth drug and alcohol prevention programs? Several studies have tested the effectiveness of these programs and the Juvenile and Adolescent Substance Abuse Prevention (JASAP) program of Atlanta, Georgia is one of these effective programs. Belgrave, Reed, Plybon, and Corneille (2004) used the Specific Event Drug and Alcohol Refusal Efficacy Scale (SEDARE) to measure the effectiveness of a drug abuse prevention program for urban African American girls. The SEDARE was used to show the probability of drug use among these girls in certain situations. The situations in which the girls viewed themselves as being able to refuse drugs and alcohol varied; but of the 92 girls that participated, the girls in the intervention group had a higher drug and alcohol refusal rate as measured by the SEDARE than the girls in the control group. According to the study, 67% of the intervention group stated that they could refuse drugs and alcohol as opposed to the 33% of the comparison group who stated that they could refuse drugs and alcohol in the same situation. Most of the situations that were measured by the SEDARE were associated with peer relationships. With Project KICK (Kids In Cooperation with Kids) Rollins, Rubin, and Wright (1999) used the community partnership, drug education, parent involvement, and peer counseling to evaluate the effectiveness of this program versus the programs that are only taught in the schools. Elementary school students from a mid sized southeastern city in Florida were the actual participants, and seventh graders served as the peer mentors to two classrooms of third graders. The Curriculum used for project KICK is composed of nine units that the students will master upon completion. The Questionnaire used by Rollins et al(1999) measured attitudes related to substance abuse, teenage pregnancy prevention, school attitudes, aggressive behavior, and stress reduction. The purpose of this program was to not only provide substance abuse prevention and education, but also to create a support base within the community where the pressure to try alcohol and drugs is lessened. In 1993, Ellickson, Bell, and McGuigan did a longitudinal study over six years that achieved reduced drug use during the years of junior high school. The curriculum used consisted of eleven lessons and was tested in 30 schools in eight highly diversified communities on the west coast. The curriculum focused on providing the 7th and 8th grade students the skills needed to resist drug and alcohol use. Throughout the program, approximately 4000 7th grade students were assessed six times (once every year) after the program was completed until grade 12. The results of this particular program were that as soon as the program was completed, the effects on drug use ended. Ellickson et al. (1993) found that the cognitive risk factors continued until the 10th grade for most of the students, but over all found that it is doubtful that early prevention is effective without some form of continued prevention efforts during high school. …

To test or not to test: do workplace drug testing programs discourage employee drug use?

Workplace drug testing programs are often met with intense criticism. Despite resistance among labor and consumer groups and a lack of rigorous empirical evidence regarding effectiveness, drug testing programs have remained popular with employers throughout the 1990s and into the current century. The present study analyzed nationally representative data on over 15,000 US households to determine whether various types of workplace drug testing programs influenced the probability of drug use by workers. The study estimated several empirical specifications using both univariate and bivariate probit techniques. The specification tests favored the bivariate probit model over the univariate probit model. Estimated marginal effects of drug testing on any drug use were negative, significant, and relatively large, indicating that drug testing programs are achieving one of the desired effects. The results were similar when any drug use was replaced with chronic drug use in the models. These results have important policy implications regarding the effectiveness and economic viability of workplace anti-drug programs.

Adolescent Drug Use and Educational Attainment

Recent studies investigating the labor-market effects of illicit drug use have consistently found a positive relation between drug use and earnings. These analyses have, however, ignored the potential relationship between drug use and human-capital formation. This paper examines the effect of drug use during adolescence on formal educational attainment using a sample drawn from the National Longitudinal Survey Youth Cohort. The probability of drug use is estimated across racial groups according to three categories; use of any illicit drug, use including hard drugs, and use of only marijuana. Fitted values for the probability of drug use are calculated and entered into a regression framework to estimate the number of school years completed. The empirical results indicate that all three categories of drug use are associated with significant negative impacts on educational attainment after controlling for individual differences in personal endowments and socioeconomic characteristics. On average, adolescent drug use is found to reduce eventual educational attainment by about 1 year, ceteris paribus . These findings suggest that previous studies that focus only on the direct effects of drug use on earnings may reflect a statistical bias that leads to an overstatement of the positive effects of drug use on earnings.

First Opportunities to Try Drugs and the Transition to First Drug Use: Evidence from a National School Survey in Panama

In recent evidence from the United States, there generally are no male-female differences in the probability of drug use among persons who report an opportunity to try the drugs. This is an important observation that might help us understand male-female differences in later drug use and dependence, but the observation needs to be replicated elsewhere. We begin this replication process using data from a 1996 national school survey of drug involvement among 6,477 students age 12–18 in Panama. We first examine the occurrence of an opportunity to use drugs by grade. We then follow these analyses with an examination of male-female differences in drug opportunity patterns. We found opportunities to use drugs and actual drug use to be greater at higher grade levels. Also, we found the probability of making a transition to use, given an opportunity, to be more likely among upper-grade students. Consistent with results observed in the United States, we found males in Panama to be more likely to have an opportunity to use marijuana, crack-cocaine, and other forms of cocaine, but not more likely than females to make a transition into drug use once an opportunity had occurred to try each drug. These findings are discussed in relation to the epidemiology and prevention of drug use in Panama and elsewhere, and future research on male-female differences in drug involvement.

Intrapersonal Contributors to Drug Use

Although social-environmental factors play a large role in the development of substance use and abuse, other important contributors reside within the individual. These intrapersonal factors help determine certain aspects of the social environment, which may in turn alter the probability of drug use and abuse. In addition, these intrapersonal factors alter chances of initiation, the transition from initiation to regular use of a drug, and the transition from regular drug use to problem use. These factors include (but are not limited to) personality, cognitions, affect, problem behaviors, demographics, and bonding. We explore the potential role of each of these intrapersonal factors in a larger, biopsychosocial model of drug use and abuse. We also discuss the implications of each of these factors for prevention.

The Impact of Parenting Factors, Deviant Peers, and Coping Style upon Adolescent Drug Use

Social learning theory and recent findings regarding stress and coping are integrated to form a model of adolescent drug use. Analysis of data obtained from interviews with 343 youth largely support the model. Parental rejection, deviant peers, and a combination of low self-esteem with an avoidant coping style served to increase an adolescent's probability of drug use. The findings suggest that treatment of adolescent drug use should utilize both individual counseling, focusing upon social/coping skills, and family therapy, with an emphasis upon parenting practices.

Informed consent as a source of bias in clinical research

Clinical observation suggested that schizophrenic patients more often refused to participate in experiments. In two studies psychiatric patient volunteers and nonvolunteers were compared on discharge diagnoses (psychiatric and medical), medication given, demographic measures, and hospitalization characteristics. In each study, patients with paranoid schizophrenia were more likely to refuse participation. Also, in each study, volunteers received more benzodiazepines and more nonpsychiatric medication. The latter difference could not be explained on the bases of rated severity of or probability of drug use in diagnosed medical illnesses, or number of medical illnesses. Characteristics of schizophrenic patients such as suspiciousness, negativism, and ambivalence were suggested as possible sources of their refusal to participate. Nonvolunteers were suggested to be less agreeable and compliant in general, and perhaps less likable, possibly explaining their receiving fewer benodiazepines and nonpsychiatric medications. Attempts to characterize and correct the volunteer bias should be made, including offering tangible reward.

Notes on prediction of behavioural change in evaluation of drug education

Much drug education has, rightly or wrongly, been concerned, implicitly or explicitly, with affecting the probability of drug use. This note is concerned with the assumption, often underlying both the application of educational methods and their evaluation, that behaviour change is somehow caused by changes in attitude and can be predicted on the basis of changes in response to attitude scales. Evaluation results are discussed to demonstrate that attitude and behaviour do not necessarily co-vary as one might expect. A model of choice is outlined as a step towards a more adequate formulation that recognises the situational context of verbal and non-verbal behaviours.