Privileged Identity Research Articles

Anti‐egalitarianism motivates denial of male privilege

AbstractMen are privileged economically, politically, and socially, yet some deny this. Previous research suggests that denial of privilege can help to manage the discomfort associated with a privileged identity, but we propose that it serves primarily to preserve privilege. In two preregistered studies (Ntotal = 911 Australian participants) we show that denial of male privilege is not unique to men and that it is strongly predicted by anti‐egalitarianism, even when controlling for gender and other variables known to predict attitudes toward inequality (facets of right‐wing authoritarianism and social dominance orientation). In Study 1, a multiple regression model accounted for 59% of the variability in reported male privilege awareness, with anti‐egalitarianism contributing 47% of the explanatory power. In Study 2, the explanatory power of anti‐egalitarianism was more modest (26%) and similar to that of gender (27%), and both also positively predicted claims of female privilege. This suggests that rather than simply reflecting unawareness of male privilege or being a way to manage a privileged identity, denying the existence of male privilege and claiming that women are privileged helps to preserve gender inequality by presenting it as a just result of meritocracy.

The Invention of Iran: From ‘Iranianness’ to ‘Persianness’

ABSTRACT The intellectual ‘invention of Iran’ is a potent image that owes its birth to the Orientalist practice of archaeology and historiography from the mid-19th to the latter 20th century: an intellectual enterprise that originated from the myth of Aryan race theory, the hypothesis of Aryan migration to the Indian subcontinent, and the subsequent positioning of Persian ethnie to be the sole author of Iran’s ‘glorious national past’. This Eurocentric narration has given rise to ‘Persianness’ as an ethnoracial form of supremacy akin to the role of Whiteness in Europe and the US. In this article, I not only examine the epistemic foundations of Iranian nationalism but, more importantly, show how the enduring legacy of the Orientalist interpretation of Iran’s past animates the work of contemporary Persian scholars and elites. I argue that the historical construction of Persianness as a privileged identity has essentialised seeing, thinking, knowing, and speaking like a Persian and thereby presented it as a natural order of things. This raciolinguistic invention sustains a habitus that perceives and treats the non-Persian histories and memories only through the lens of Persianness – in which they are by definition less-than.

The role of teacher critical racial consciousness in cultivating student–teacher relationships and school belonging for Black, Indigenous, and youth of color

AbstractRelationships between students and teachers are a critical protective factor for all students, especially for Black, Indigenous, and youth of color (BIYOC). Critical racial consciousness is the ability to recognize and resist racism. This study explores how teacher critical racial consciousness contributes to shaping learning environments, how teachers perceive their interactions with BIYOC, and BIYOC perceptions of their relationships with their teachers and how their teachers create environments that foster belonging. Data collection consisted of interviews with school teachers (White, n = 7; Black, Indigenous, and people of color, n = 4) and BIYOC (n = 5). Conventional content analysis was used to analyze data. Results indicated that teachers who demonstrated evidence of critical racial consciousness did so by acknowledging their privileged identities, approaching and participating in racial conversations, and handling concerns of race and racism from both BIYOC and other teachers. In turn, students reported feeling a sense of school belonging when teachers created opportunities for BIYOC to raise any concerns surrounding racism and included positive racial/ethnic representation in classroom activities. Study findings provide insights into the importance of teacher critical racial consciousness in creating racially/ethnically inclusive environments that promote school belonging and enhance the quality of relationships between BIYOC and their teachers.

The hidden cues of social class: What do people rely on when determining someone else's social class?

AbstractWe aimed to understand the cues individuals use to assess social class, and their relation to social theories. Participant (N = 235) open‐ended survey responses were coded in response to the following: “If you can at least sometimes tell if someone is (#1) working‐class/poor OR (#2) middle‐/upper‐class, how can you tell? What are all of the characteristics, behaviors, and/or other indicators that communicate their social class to you?” Based on participant comments, we created six themes: embodied cultural capital, material/economic capital, taste, status/position, institutional cultural capital, and social capital. First, we found spontaneous participant responses reflected several classic social class theories. Second, while the content often differed in terms of how participants discussed the working‐class/poor compared to the middle‐/upper‐class, there was only one significant difference in frequency of response. Specifically, participants were more likely to express the embodied cultural capital theme when asked about the working‐class/poor. Finally, participants with some more privileged identities (e.g., racially white, those with higher education, straight/heterosexual participants) were more likely to focus on symbolic or non‐material aspects of class compared to participants with some less privileged identities (e.g., participants with lower incomes in their families of origin), who focused more on material and economic cues in determining a person's class.

Creating an equitable and inclusive STEM classroom: a qualitative meta-synthesis of approaches and practices in higher education

How can Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) faculty integrate a humanistic approach to create environments where students do not feel marginalized? Changes are necessary to address the historically exclusive climate and systemic oppressive classroom policies and classroom practices dominated by White, patriarchal, Eurocentric perspectives pervasive in many STEM higher education classrooms. By incorporating approaches and practices documented in the literature over time and across multiple STEM disciplines, faculty can create equitable and inclusive (EI) classrooms. However, the challenge for individual faculty members is consolidating the information to identify fundamental elements necessary for establishing EI spaces. This project addresses that challenge by conducting a comprehensive meta-synthesis of higher education literature to identify themes for what constitutes an EI classroom and recommendations for how faculty can facilitate one. The dataset includes 61 articles from 277 authors and 48 unique journals and reflects a timeframe of January 1995–June 2021. Our findings are organized into four key concepts, indicating that EI pedagogies related to the affective, cognitive, and metacognitive categories of learning are vital to an equitable and inclusive classroom. However, the essential finding of this analysis was the importance of the fourth key concept, faculty cultural competency and elements related to the climate and structure of the classroom, referred to as Faculty Agency and Action (FAA). The results of this meta-synthesis were compared to the most frequently cited seminal works within the field, demonstrating that although these individual works contain most, they do not include all of the themes indicated by this study and, in some cases, over- or underrepresent some of the topics discussed. As mirrored in the most frequently cited works and the findings of this meta-synthesis, it takes incorporating classroom-focused approaches and faculty’s reflective resolve to understand and change how dominant and privileged identities are reflected for classrooms to be equitable and inclusive in STEM.

Perceptions of Anticipated Peer Support for Survivors of Sexual Violence Among Students with Minoritized Identities.

Peers' attitudes toward survivors of sexual violence can impact their willingness to disclose. Students with minoritized identities may perceive and experience their campus environments as less supportive than peers with privileged identities. The purpose of this study was to examine perceptions of anticipated peer support for sexual violence survivors, using a cross-sectional study of 2,727 students. Linear regression modeling showed significant associations between students with minoritized identities and lower scores on perceptions of anticipated peer support for survivors. There were also several important interactions between specific overlapping student identities. The findings suggest that students with minoritized identities perceive anticipated peer support less favorably than those with privileged identities.

Coaching for privilege: coaches, soccer, and education in professional sports clubs in high-SES cities in Israel

This article examines two key questions: How do coaches working in professional soccer clubs with high socioeconomic class (SES) high-school student define their role? Do the coaches’ definitions of the role affect the reproduction of privilege, and how so? Drawing on qualitative interviews with 15 coaches operating in professional soccer clubs in high-SES cities in Israel, we identified four key components of the coaches’ role: coaches’ descriptions of the youth and their class’s living spaces; the coaches’ role perception; key values subscribed to by coaches; and students’ future orientation (How does the coach see the youths in adulthood). These findings were discussed in light of their significance and implications for forming and cultivating habitus and elite or privileged identity among high-SES youth-players (the linkage of position and disposition) in informal educational spaces.

Creating inclusive schools to reduce health and well‐being disparities

AbstractIn the U.S., people with marginalized racial/ethnic, social class, sexual, and gender identities often have worse physical and mental health than people with more privileged identities. This paper reviews psychological research suggesting that inclusive school cultures can improve the health and well‐being of those with marginalized identities. Specifically, we review two examples of sets of ideas and practices in schools that create more supportive environments: (a) ideas and practices that recognize and include diverse identities and (b) ideas and practices that support interdependent ways of thinking, feeling, and acting. We also speculate about the psychological and behavioral mechanisms by which each protects health and well‐being, including reducing discrimination, increasing school belonging, strengthening positive ingroup identities, and allowing students to access culturally relevant support. We suggest that changing school cultures to make them more inclusive is one way to reduce health and well‐being disparities.

Examining the Complexity of Pre-Service Social Studies Teacher Dispositions: Ideology, Experience, and Privilege

In this piece, the author examined the impact of ideology, experience, and privilege on pre-service Social Studies teacher disposition. Findings suggest that participants conceptually understood injustice and began to critique social antagonisms like whiteness and class. However, they continued reinforcing raced and classed ideologies in their interactions with those outside their group. When faced with the cognitive dissonance between stated ideology and their privileged position, the more liberal participants re-narrativize their political stances to adopt more critical ideological worldviews while maintaining their privileged identities. More conservative participants disassociated themselves from more extreme aspects of U.S. conservative political ideology. Both groups maintained the ideologies that provided justification for social hierarchy. Upbringing/identity, understandings of power/hierarchy, emic cultural understandings, and a desire to live one’s ideology, or not, beyond the classroom, informed participant decition making.

Pathways to the therapist paragon: a decolonial grounded theory.

While many professional associations within clinical and counseling psychology have made an aspirational call for clinician awareness of social position, there is a lack of research into how socially-conferred privilege impacts psychotherapy. Specifically of interest is the differences in race and gender within the therapeutic dyad, in which there is a BIPOC (Black, Indigenous, and Persons of Color)/white or male/female-identified dynamic. The authors utilized a Grounded Theory approach to analyze qualitative interviews with practicing psychologists to construct a process model regarding how socially-conferred privileged identity domains impact the therapeutic relationship and the participants' professionalization process. The analysis identified the core conceptual theme of the Therapist Paragon, representing an idealized version of what a perfect therapist should be. This replicated the foundational figures of our field - primarily older, white men. The process model consisted of two distinct pathways toward the Therapist Paragon, one for BIPOC psychologists and one for white psychologists. The female BIPOC pathway consisted of imposter syndrome, persistent feelings of inadequacy, and tendencies to over-credential their professional identity to seek credibility in the eyes of clients and colleagues. The white pathway consisted of down-playing whiteness and attempting to initially modify behavior toward client cultural norms. The results point to a distinct professionalization and practice process for BIPOC psychologists compared to white counterparts. This dynamic may have implications beyond increasing support for BIPOC clinicians specifically, but instead indicate a lack of acknowledgement of the psychological impact of socially-conferred privilege in the psychotherapy enterprise overall. Recommendations are offered for revisions to training models, continuing education, and supervision/consultation.

Development and Validation of the Privileged Social Class Attitudes Scale (PSCAS)

The goal of the study was to develop a scale to assess the social class attitudinal profiles of people with social class privilege. Based on social class theory and other models of privileged identities, we generated an item pool reflecting different attitudinal profiles. In Study 1, exploratory factor analysis revealed a scale with four core social class attitude subscales (Social Class Prejudice, Acknowledgement, Awareness, and Action) and three additional scales reflecting independent social class constructs (Social Class Identity Centrality, Guilt, and Fortune). In Study 2, we found that the subscales fit together in a multifactor correlational model and established construct validity. However, the Action subscale surprisingly correlated positively with the Prejudice scale. Post hoc analyses revealed this correlation existed only for those high in just world beliefs. Taken together, the Privileged Social Class Attitudes Scale provides a new tool for investigating the attitudinal profiles of people with social class privilege.

“SHE CAN GET A VISA”: How Nationality and Class Shape Decision Making at a Kenyan NGO

Prior studies show how race, class, and gender matter for worker identities within organizations, but there is an opportunity to focus on worker nationality and class background within nongovernmental organizations (NGOs). Using evidence from ethnographic fieldwork, in-depth interviews, and organizational documents at a small NGO in Kenya, I show how nationality and class mediate how NGO workers assign and accomplish organizational tasks. My results suggest that a process of elastic transnational stratification determines how nationality and class distribute tasks and decision-making power in relation to the location and organizational domain in which they must act. While both nationality and class are used as proxies for one’s proximity to power and influence, there are instances where less privileged identities are more strategic to deploy. Nationality and class shape access to various development spaces, the amount and type of resources one can attain on behalf of the organization, and legitimacy locally and at the global level.

An art therapy education response: linking inequality and intersectional identity

ABSTRACT Background An account of how one Art Therapy training course links information about inequalities with the theory of intersectionality. In trying to understand intersectionality, the course community questions how clients and therapists respond to and experience health inequalities and discrimination. For both, there may be the pain of being ‘othered’ and the effects of unconscious privilege. Nevertheless, there are examples to be celebrated of how some people manage to use their identity in moving forward. Context Bizarrely, how identities link to socio-political conditions is not readily acknowledged within therapy professions. The focus of therapy has tended to stay on the inner world. Also, since the end of the second world war, there has been a gradual decoupling of political approaches concerned with social justice and the redistribution of resources and political approaches concerned with identity recognition. Approaches When health inequalities and identity issues became sharply visible during the Covid 19 pandemic, the profession responded with adaptations to its educational and therapeutic work. It is possible to see how clients, students, art therapists and colleagues adapt, consult and collaborate. The paper provides descriptions of students' adapted and collaborative practice. Outcomes, conclusions and implications for research The use of culture, art and identity-aware supervision in art therapy are ways of developing our understanding of health inequalities and intersecting identities. The research implications for Art Therapy are that generic knowledge of research about discrimination and glaring health inequalities is a valuable foundation for research in our discipline. Plain-language summary This paper discusses how one Art Therapy training course links information about health and social inequalities with ideas about intersecting identities. The course community explores and questions how clients and therapists experience health inequalities and discrimination. There are discussions about the pain of feeling unwanted and the response of people who are not conscious of their inherited privileges simply because they are born into specific societal structures. Whilst recognising that feelings about identity may be painful and a source of shame, the course also considers how it is that some people manage to acknowledge and use self-reflection about their less privileged identities in moving forward. It is strange how the effects of social and health inequalities are rarely acknowledged within psychological disciplines, including art therapy. That seems to be because the focus of therapy has tended to stay on the inner world. Also, since the end of the second world war, there has been a gradual shift in political approaches concerned with social justice and the redistribution of resources and political approaches concerned with identity recognition. When existing health inequalities and identity issues became sharply visible during the Covid 19 pandemic (the Health Foundation, 2020) the profession responded with adaptations that took its educational and therapeutic work online. There is hope because it is increasingly possible to see how clients, students, art therapists and colleagues consult one another and collaborate over adaptations in therapeutic approaches. The paper provides descriptions of some adapted student practices from placements. The use of culture and art, together with supervision in art therapy, are ways of developing our understanding of health inequalities and our intersecting identities. Nevertheless, the pace of social and cultural change can be slow, sometimes moving forward and sometimes backwards. The research implications for the Arts Therapies are that broad knowledge of research about discrimination and glaring health inequalities is valuable in the push for change. Also, research from other disciplines is often the foundation on which the research contribution of the Arts Therapies in this area and others can be built.

Goethe's Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship and Philosophy ed. by Sarah Vandegrift Eldridge and C. Allen Speight

Reviewed by: Goethe's Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship and Philosophy ed. by Sarah Vandegrift Eldridge and C. Allen Speight Tanvi Solanki Goethe's Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship and Philosophy. Edited by Sarah Vandegrift Eldridge and C. Allen Speight. New York: Oxford University Press, 2020. Pp. 296. Paper $39.81. ISBN 978-0190859251. Philosophical approaches to Goethe's oeuvre generally do not include Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship, but rather Goethe's morphology, theory of colors, or explicit literary engagements with philosophers such as Spinoza. Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship, a novel of formation or a Bildungsroman, tells of a young man from a well-off merchant family, who rebels against his father and flees his home to join precarious traveling theater troupes, falls in love and has several affairs, and eventually is somewhat socialized into bourgeois society. It is unusual to suggest that it is a philosophical novel or philosophy as such. As of 2021, the collaborative "Goethe-Lexicon of Philosophical Concepts" treats Goethe as a philosopher rather than a poet, dramatist, or novelist and selects terms treated as philosophical rather than poetic concepts, most of which do not concern Wilhelm Meister specifically. Eldridge and Speight's timely volume can thus be situated as a valuable contribution to recent debates about how Goethe's literary works can be approached philosophically. The editors seek to explore what the particularities of a work of literature can tell us about universal and fundamental questions about life such as gender and sexuality, contingency, and authority. Rather than limiting their aim to argue for the novel to be included within the Western philosophical canon, the editors seek to redefine what would and would not count as a philosophical question, and how such questions could be best addressed in the open-ended, all-inclusive genre of the novel. While this might be new to some contemporary philosophers, especially those hailing from the Anglo-American tradition of analytic philosophy, it is still worth emphasizing, though it was already an inspiration for Friedrich Schlegel's 1799 philosophical novel Lucinde. For anyone reading, writing about, and teaching Wilhelm Meister in the current political climate, the question concerning the protagonist Wilhelm's identity is unavoidable. It is no longer possible to treat as unmarked and normative that the central figure of Goethe's hugely influential Bildungsroman hails from a wealthy [End Page 155] family and is a white, heterosexual, European male who has the privilege to opt to lead a wayward life of an artist who earns little or no money, though he has the option to follow his father's profession as a businessman. While the editors acknowledge Wilhelm's privileged identity, they argue that the novel nonetheless has relevance today and raises important questions with which all can engage. One strength of the volume is its inclusion of a collection of high-quality essays representing methodologically diverse ways of thinking about the novel's relevance for broader, universally accessible issues that are not limited to the time, place, class, and other particularities of Wilhelm. This aligns with Goethe's own view that individuals are dynamically shaped by ever-changing historical circumstances. It would be helpful if the authors made clear in their otherwise excellent introduction the principle in the organization of the articles. There were also some mentions of Wilhelm Meister as a harbinger of modernity, but the term modernity itself was left relatively vague. It would be productive to question the assumptions of "modernity," a term that is so often thrown around without critical definition or re-definition, and to further probe whether the universal topics the volume seeks to address are, indeed, universal. The volume begins with Eckart Förster's essay, skillfully translated by Eldridge and Speight, which discusses Goethe as a philosopher, particularly through his studies of nature. The second chapter by Speight argues for a revisability throughout the novel, lending it a kind of openness for philosophical speculation. The third essay by Eldridge, impressive in its skillful, detailed analysis of many episodes in the novel and philologically tight comparisons to the novel's early draft, the Theatralische Sendung, shows how the novel can teach us about using narrative direction to manage contingency in life. Elizabeth...

"I just check 'other'": Evidence to support expanding the measurement inclusivity and equity of ethnicity/race and cultural identifications of U.S. adolescents.

In nationally funded research in the U.S., ethnicity and race are measured with checkbox questions, the limited categories of which may yield significant missing data and low salience to available categories, particularly among adults of color. How adolescent-generated data compare to these limited categories, and how adolescents, not just those of color, describe their culture are understudied. In our sample, we asked the following: (a) how do adolescents' ethnicity/race and culture identifications compare?, (b) how do adolescents' open-ended ethnicity/race and checkbox ethnicity/race labels compare?, and (c) how do adolescents' ethnicity/race labels compare to available categories for identification on the National Institutes of Health's (NIH's) demographic form? Data from 76 adolescents (64.5% female, Mage = 15.78 years) were qualitatively and quantitatively analyzed. White adolescents were as likely as adolescents of color to identify with cultural labels, and most adolescents described culture differently than race/ethnicity. White adolescents' open-ended and checkbox labels overlapped more (38.8%) than adolescents of colors' (22.5%). Only 17% of adolescents' open-ended race/ethnicity identification labels and 54% of their checkbox identifications were available on the NIH's demographic form. As measurement of demographic data is reduced to few options that favor privileged identities, innovative methods to measure individuals' identities are warranted. Using tools that do not reflect individuals' identity labels may increase error and reflects structural problems of research inequity. Our findings provide initial evidence of this methodological issue in a sample of adolescents. Building inclusive demographic tools from individuals' self-descriptors that remain feasible and practical for use can diminish inequity associated with describing "diverse" populations. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Managing the rules of recognition: how early career academics negotiate career scripts through identity work

ABSTRACT Due to the changing landscapes of higher education, a large body of research has studied how scholars make sense of academic identities and careers. Yet, little is known about how academics actually ‘work’ on their identities to navigate normative demands and complex career structures. This paper explores how scholars negotiate career scripts trough identity work. Drawing upon 35 interviews with early career academics in political science and history, the analysis discerns four patterns of identity talk through which academic identities are constructed: achievement talk (signalling achievement and competitiveness), authenticity talk (signalling genuineness and being true to self), loyalty talk (signalling loyalty and willingness of helping out), and personation talk (adjustment to privileged identities). Defining what to display and how to correctly embody its corresponding values, these patterns convey different ways in which scholars manage their identities according to the perceived rules of recognition. Identifying several contrasting understandings of what it means to act and to represent worth, the study shows that successful identity management requires a certain feel for the game of recognition. Involving the symbolic struggle of ‘fitting in’ and ‘standing out,’ strategies for identity work are shaped by scholars’ social class background and gender. In demonstrating how the prevalence of project-based work accentuates the importance of identity performances on academic markets, the findings suggest that the concept of identity labour may open up new avenues of investigation.

Intellectual servility, structural influences, and multicultural perspectives: a response to Ballantyne

ABSTRACT In this paper, we briefly respond to several points Ballantyne raises in ‘Recent Work on Intellectual Humility’ (this issue). First, we contend with the suggestion that IH is ‘hypoegoic’ which risks overlooking problematic vices of excesses, such as intellectual servility. Second, we add additional points to the discussion about whether IH is interpersonal, or simply correlated with interpersonal outcomes. Third, we suggest considering structural influences on the development of IH alongside Ballantyne’s three intrapersonal influences. Though individuals with privileged identities may be at greater risk for developing intellectual arrogance, individuals holding marginalized identities may experience structural pressures to over-own their limitations, causing them to develop the vice of intellectual servility. Finally, we highlight the importance of addressing multicultural perspectives on IH, including the risk for intellectual servility among marginalized groups and reconsidering whether IH is purely intrapersonal. We also propose measurement strategies aimed at addressing these concerns.

Intersectional Masturbation: A Content Analysis on Female Masturbation Studies Through a Sex Positive and Intersectional Lens

This content analysis examined the literature on female masturbation from 2000-2020. We sought to elucidate the demographics of women most often studied, whether scholarship favored people with more privileged identities, and the degree to which the literature is sex-positive. Our hypotheses were: a) there is a gap in sex research surrounding female masturbation for women with marginalized identities, and b) the literature will be predominantly sex-positive. Using the search terms “female masturbation” and “women & masturbation” we analyzed 85 articles. Results showed that female masturbation scholarship is primarily sex-positive; however, the samples’ demographics still tend to be less marginalized and more privileged. Further, the results varied based on the articles’ country of origin. This study highlights gaps in the study of female masturbation among marginalized women and the need to improve sex positivity within the literature. Future research directions are discussed.

Caucusing Updated: Innovations to Build Belonging and Empowerment

Caucusing, as a social justice activity, is traditionally implemented to provide an insider space for marginalized persons to share experiences and build a space for belonging and safety by excluding those who hold privileged identities. Within a particular event that combines privileged and oppressed, experiences are uneven, with insiders experiencing inclusion, while outsiders have a largely isolating experience, although intended to be a place to interrogate privilege. It is not an activity to build community across identities, nor is it the intention. Through expansive reflection on a course activity, the authors share their experience of an updated caucusing activity, a three-part undertaking that first holds caucuses where all students participate, subsequently holds cross-identity dialogues, and then dialogues are repeated with different groupings. Informing this article are the authors’ separate and dialogic reflections, activity evaluations and follow-up comments by students. Results reveal high potential for building belonging and community within and across identities, potentially relevant to numerous service professionals. Caution exists when groups have low levels of engagement with each other and trusting experiences with each other and the instructor. A less successful version of this activity occurred in a part-time program which suggests this caution is warranted.

Of citizens and strangers: the privilege of being Burman

ABSTRACT Drawing on interviews with 20 young Myanmar citizens from Yangon and Mawlamyine, this paper contrasts the educational experiences and perceptions of Burman and ethnic minority youth to illustrate Myanmar’s citizenship crisis, which fuels the grievances of ethnic minorities through their restricted citizenship vis-à-vis the Burman majority’s appropriation of citizenship. It offers a unique comparative analysis of Burman and ethnic minority youth citizens’ accounts to illustrate the ‘Burman privilege’ hypothesis and contributes to the limited evidence on Myanmar youth. I suggest that Burman-ness operated as a privileged identity in the education system to generate normative and institutional benefits for Burmans while constituting ethnic minority citizens as strangers estranged from their citizenship.