Private Education Expenditure Research Articles

사교육비 불평등도에 대한 연구: 사교육비 지니 계수, 후버 지수, 팔마 비율을 중심으로

Objectives This study aims to find a way to measure the degree of inequality in private education expenditures in Korea and to analyze trends in inequality. Methods We analyzed the private education expenditures survey conducted by the Ministry of Education to find an index that indicates the inequality of private education expenditures, and obtained each index by year to under-stand the trend. Results The average private education expenditures per person is increasing, and the analysis of private education expenditures inequality using the Gini coefficient, the Hoover index, and the Palma ratio shows that inequality is increasing, especially in elementary schools. In 2020, during the COVID-19 situation, the private education Gini coefficient increased rapidly as the private education participation rate decreased in elementary and middle schools, but this phenomenon was not found in high schools. Conclusions The Gini coefficient, Hoover index, and Palma ratio, which indicate the degree of inequality in private education, can be obtained for the entire population and participants, but considering that the case where private education expenditures are 0 has a significant impact, it may be more appropriate to limit it to participants. The Gini coefficient, which indicates income inequality, is on the decline, but the Gini coefficient for private education expenditures for participants is increasing, and since private education is linked to the problems of low birth rate and local extinction that our society faces, special measures are needed to reduce private education.

Private Educational Expenditure Inequality between Migrant and Urban Households in China’s Cities

This paper studies households’ expenditure on the education of children in China’s cities to assess how internal migrant families’ investment in the human capital of their offspring differs from that of local urban families. The private education-related expenditure reflects both households’ willingness to invest in human capital and institutional constraints, as China’s household registration (hukou) system prevents children without a local city hukou from enrolling in urban public schools. In-school fees (consisting of statutory tuition and institutional tuition fees) are commonly topped-up with substantial private tutoring expenditure. We apply multiple regression to the 2008 “Rural–Urban Migration Survey in China” data to analyze the average expenditure differences between temporary migrants, permanent migrants and locals. The findings are, after controlling for social and economic characteristics, that: (1) the overall spending on education of migrant households overwhelmingly exceeds that of locals, which is expected since migrants must finance privately all education-related expenses their children incur; (2) migrant households spend more on institutional tuition fees compared to households with a local city hukou, reflecting the varying severity of administrative hurdles faced by families; and (3) temporary migrants spend more on institutional tuition fees than permanent migrant households, but less in private tutoring.

Does an economic crisis deflate education bubble and inequality? Lessons from South Korea 1997–2020

Rapid education expansion has been a main driver of the remarkable economic growth in South Korea for last decades. However, in recent times, its excessive education credentialism is considered a hurdle against further developments. This study examined whether education bubble and inequality decreased during the Asian Financial Crisis 1997–98, the Global Financial Crisis 2008–09, and the COVID‐19 pandemic 2020. It tracked quarterly distributional changes in private education expenditure of Korean households with Changes‐in‐Changes. The findings indicate that Korean households postponed private education expenditure cut in the first quarter of the crises to prevent their children from falling behind in severe education competition. Then, they temporarily downsized it in the second quarter. During the pandemic, vulnerable students experienced higher fluctuations in private education expenditure than they did in previous crises closely related to disproportionate effects of the pandemic on household income and consumption expenditure. Therefore, this study suggests more expansionary measures for disadvantaged students to recover from a learning loss and improving the public education system as a fundamental measure to mitigate severe private education dependency.

Class in caste: Inequalities in human capital investments in children in India

Caste is a unique marker of social stratification in India. There are significant eco- nomic inequalities and considerable disparities in educational achievements between historically disadvantaged caste groups and Others. Unequal investments in their chil- dren’s human capital by caste can perpetuate income inequalities and reproduce class differences between caste groups. This paper analyses caste-based disparities in house- hold expenditure on children’s school education using nationally representative social expenditure data on education from 2007–08 and 2017–18 in India. The paper uses a recentered influence function (RIF) based decomposition analysis to pinpoint the key factors underpinning the disparity in private educational expenditure between disadvantaged caste groups and Others. Further, to overcome the problem of heterogeneity of data the study also employs propensity score matching (PSM) as robustness check for the decomposition analysis. The findings from decomposition and matching approaches reveal that differences in endowments, specifically income differences, between caste groups explain most of the caste-based gap in children’s human capital investments. The study has implications for public policy to address educational and economic disparities between disadvantaged caste groups (ST, SC and OBC) and Others in India.

정부당파성에 따른 교육시장화 비교 분석 연구 : 유럽 및 북미 국가의 민간교육 투자와 사립학교 등록 비율을 중심으로

This paper purposed to analyze the marketization of education according to education policy determined by political factors by presenting changes in private education investment and private school enrollment rates in European and North American countries according to government partisanship. As with other policies, it was derived that fundamental changes occur in educational policies because of political factors rather than fragmentary educational considerations.
 Based on the main support of the high-income class, the right-wing party revitalizes the education market. It lowers education regulations to increase the effectiveness of private investment in education. As a result, there is a high possibility that education marketization will intensify. On the contrary, the left-wing party supported by the low-income class tries to reduce the effect of private investment. Rather than segmentation according to the special separation of secondary education, integration and education regulation are strengthened to reorganize the system to lower the marketization of education.
 This article, I looked at education marketization according to government partisanship and analyzed changes in education policy. Regarding education marketization, the ratio of private education expenditure and the ratio of private school student enrollment were used as dependent variables, and the cabinet composition ratio of left-wing and right-wing parties was used as independent variables. Through panel statistical analysis, this article obtained significant results on the changes in education marketization that differ depending on the left and right-wing government partisanship.
 In conclusion, it can be seen that the partisanship of the governments of the left and right has changed the education policies to realize the policies of their constituencies.

코로나19 상황에서 초등학생의 학업스트레스에 영향을 미치는 요인

Objectives The main purpose of this study is to analyze variables that affect the academic stress of elementary school students during the COVID-19 period.
 Methods To In order to analyze the research problem, data surveyed the 12th in 2019 and the 13th data surveyed in 2020 of Panel Study on Korean Children were used to analyze using analysis methods such as ANOVA, paired-samples t-test and regression analysis.
 Results Looking at the results of the paired-sample t-test analysis of students' academic stress and monthly average private education expenses during the pre-COVID-19 period and during the COVID-19 period, students' academic stress level and average monthly private education expenditure during the COVID-19 period were statistically significantly higher than before the period before COVID-19. As a result of analyzing the effects on elementary school students' academic stress, variables such as student persistence, life satisfaction, academic performance evaluation, and learning activity adaptation significantly reduced elementary school students' academic stress. On the other hand, parental achievement pressure and monthly average private education expenses increased the academic stress of elementary school students statistically significantly.
 Conclusions We analyzed the variables that affect elementary school students' academic stress during the COVID-19 period, and based on the analyzed results, policy suggestions and follow-up research suggestions were made.

고등학생의 사교육 비용 및 시간에 대한 코호트 간 비교 분석

This study analyzed changes in private education costs and time of high school students in the 2013 cohort, who experienced a school closure event, with those of the 2005 cohort using data from the 5th (2009) and 6th (2010) waves of the Korea Educational Longitudinal Study (KELS) and the 7th (2019) and 8th (2020) waves of the KELS 2013 cohort. Considering that the private education pattern may differ depending on students' educational conditions, additional analysis was conducted on discriminatory effects based on household income and regional size.
 The analysis revealed that the school closure event had a positive effect on both private education expenditure and time. Specifically, it increased the average monthly private education expenditure of students in general high schools by approximately KRW 88,000 and the average weekly private education time by about 2 hours and 15 minutes. Furthermore, this effect was consistent across all subgroups classified by income level and regional size. Based on the results, policy recommendations were made to improve existing policies to reduce private education expenses and alleviate the burden on vulnerable groups, as well as to provide practical support to supplement learning deficits.

Implications of Demanding Private Education Expenditure on Low Fertility Rate in South Korea

이 논문의 목적은 대한민국에서 급격히 증가하는 사교육비가 주는 저출산율의 영향을 조사하는 것이다. 교육과 인구의 구조관계는 한 나라의 발전의 궤도를 형성하며 서로 복잡하게 얽혀 있다. 대한민국은 끊임없이 저출산율의 문제가 제기되고 있으며 2021년 0.81이라는 최저 기록의 수치에 이르렀으며, 이 수치는 OECD 의 평균치인 1.58과는 상당한 차이를 보여주고 있다. 2007년부터 2022년까지 15년간 수치를 분석하여 사교육비와 저출산의 두 변수 관계의 상호 관계를 보여 줌으로써 대한민국이 직면한 문제 해결 방안을 모색하는데 목적이 있다. 이는 정책 입안자들에게 공교육에 대한 투자를 통해 이러한 문제해결을 제시하는 것이다. 사교육비의 증가는 교육에 기반한 인적 자원 향상에는 도움이 될 수 있다. 그러나 사교육비 증가는 출산율 감소에 영향을 주고 있고, 이는 결론적으로 인구 감소로 국가의 인적자원에 위기가 될 수 있다. 공교육 (EBS)에 대한 투자와 사람들이 공교육을 선택할 수 있도록 정책의 변화를 주어야 한다. 현재 대한민국이 처한 저출산 문제를 해결할 방법을 적극적으로 제안한다.

An Analysis of the Effect of Parents' Government Trust on Private Education Expenditure: Based on the moderating effects of political ideology

본 연구는 한국조세재정연구원에서 수행하고 있는 재정패널조사 2015~2020년 데이터를 활용하여 학부모의 정부신뢰가 사교육비 지출에 미치는 영향력을 분석하며, 이때 정부-개인 간 정치적 이념의 차이가 정부신뢰와 사교육비 지출 간의 관계를 어떻게 조절하고 있는지 살펴보았다. 이를 위해 FGLS 모형을 활용하여 패널회귀분석을 수행하였다. 분석결과 학부모의 정부신뢰가 사교육비 지출을 완화하거나 증가속도를 억제하는데 긍정적인 방향으로 작용하는 경향을 보였으며, 이때 개인의 이념적 성향(진보, 보수)과 관계없이 두 집단 모두 정부신뢰가 높을수록 사교육비 지출을 완화하는데 유의한 조절 효과가 나타났다. 즉 개인과 정부의 정치적 성향이 다르다 하더라도 정부에 대한 신뢰가 전제된다면 개인은 이념적 희생을 통해 사교육 정책에 순응할 가능성이 있음을 추론할 수 있다. 이상의 연구결과를 토대로, 사교육 정책을 성공적으로 추진하기 위해서는 기본적으로 국민에 대한 정부신뢰를 확보할 필요가 있으며, 반복적인 정책 수행보다는 세부적인 현상에 주목하여 문제해결을 위한 구체적인 방안이나 정책설계가 중요함을 시사하고 있다.This study analyzed the influence of parents' trust in government on private education expenditure using data from 2015-2020 of the National Survey of Tax and Benefit by the Korea Institute Of Public Finance. At this time, we studied how the difference in political ideology between government and individuals controls the relationship between government trust and private education expenditure. To this end, panel regression analysis was performed using FGLS model. Findings were as follows. Parents' trust in the government tended to act in a positive direction in easing private education expenditure or suppressing the rate of increase. At this time, regardless of the individual's ideological tendency(progress, remuneration), it turns out that the higher rate for the government trust is, the more significant moderating effect on easing private education expenditure occurs in both groups. This can be inferred that even if individuals and the government have different political tendencies, if trust in the government is premised, individuals may comply with the private education policy through ideological sacrifice. Based on the these findings, it is basically necessary to secure government trust in the people in order to successfully promote private education policies. In addition, rather than repeatedly performing in consideration of policy characteristics, it suggests that active measures or policy designs for problem-solving are important by paying attention to the phenomenon of private education.

지역의 소득수준과 주택가격이 출산율에 미치는 영향

This study constructed a regional panel data set in order to investigate the impact of regional income and house price on fertility rate in 17 cities and provinces from 2013 to 2021. The fixed effects regression model is used to estimate the effect of intrinsic characteristics of individuals in the panel data set. According to previous studies, the increase in housing prices in the region negatively affects the fertility rate, but it is necessary to analyze it in connection with the income level of the region rather than simply considering housing prices. The results show that PIR has statistically significant negative impact on fertility rate. GRNI per capita also shows significant negative effect on marriage rate and fertility rate. It implied that regions with active economic activities and high house prices are more likely to have low rates of marriage and childbirth. Furthermore, the age at which a woman first gets married and private education expenditure have corresponded negatively to fertility rates. Our results suggest that each city and province should monitor the supply and demand of housing in order to prevent housing prices from soaring and substantially provide housing financial support to lower PIR. We conclude that the high fertility of region might be achieved by stable jobs and affordable housing for the young people.

중학생의 학업열의와 학업무기력이 사교육비 및 학업성취에 미치는 영향

The purpose of this study is to study the effect of middle school students' academic enthusiasm and academic lethargy on private education expenses and academic achievement. To this end, the potential growth model of middle school 1st to 3rd grade is analyzed using 2018 child and youth panel data provided by the Korea Youth Policy Institute, assuming that academic enthusiasm and academic lethargy could be formed to a certain point and changed according to students' environment and conditions rather than staying consistent.
 As a result of the analysis of this paper, if academic enthusiasm is high, academic achievement is high, and if academic enthusiasm is low, then achievement is low. On the other hand, if academic lethargy is high, academic achievement is low, and if it is low, then achievement is high. The effect of academic enthusiasm and academic lethargy on private education expenditure is not statistically significant. It is judged that the amount of private education expenditure is not a factor that actively changes children's academic enthusiasm or academic lethargy.

시도별 사교육비 시계열의 변동과 특징

Objectives The purpose of this study is to extract the income change effect eliminated private tutoring expenditures timeseries for each school level and province and examine the education policies, which are likely to have influenced the inflection of the time series. Methods This study derives the timeseries of Fisher price index for private tutoring expenditures by school level and province. The data of 2007-2019 Private expenditures survey of Statistics Korea were used for the analysis. Results The results of this study showed that the income change effect eliminated private tutoring expenditures timeseries had different movement with nominal private education expenditure timeseries. Income change effect eliminated private tutoring expenditures increased only 0.29% between 2007 and 2019. The expenditure for the elementary school was most decreased in Jeonnam and Ulsan, that for the middle school was most decreased in Daejeon and Gyeongnam, and that for the high school was the most increased in Chungnam and Gwangju. The total expenditure was the most increased in Jeju and Jeonbuk, and the most decreased in Ulsan and Gangwon. Conclusions In spite of the large increase in nominal private tutoring expenditures, income change effect eliminate private tutoring expenditures stayed relatively stable in every school level and province. The advantages of the analysis of income change effect eliminate private tutoring expenditures and the analysis by province were discussed.

교원 임용시험 지원자의 사교육비 지출 실태와 영향

This study analyzed the level and impact of private education expenditure of teachers appointment exam applicants using five waves of Graduates Occupational Mobility Survey. Considering heterogeneous characteristics of primary and secondary teacher resources and different pass rates of appointment exams, we divided samples of primary and secondary teacher applicants. The findings are as follows. First, primary teacher applicants spent about 310 thousand won for private education on average. Private education expenditure for Hagwon was 470 thousand won while that for lectures on campus cost 220 thousand won. Second, secondary teacher applicants spent about 420 thousand won for private education on average. The higher household income level was, the higher private education expenditure was. Private education expenditure for Hagwon cost statistically significantly higher than other exam preparation methods. The lower rank university graduates and private university graduates spent more on private education for exam preparation. Third, private education expenditure was not a significant determinant of probability of passing both primary and secondary teacher appointment exams. Particularly for secondary teacher appointment exams, graduates with higher college GPA, higher satisfaction of college education, and from higher rank university and public university were more likely to pass the exam. In conclusion, this study found private education expenditure, which is associated with the level of household income, was not a significant determinant and the teacher appointment exams in Korea worked on the basis of meritocracy.

The Impact of Private Educational Expenditure on Adolescent Depression and Somatic Symptoms

This study examined the effect of private educational expenditure on adolescent depression and somatic symptoms. The sample comprised 2,589 first-grade middle-school students who completed the 2018 Korea Children and Youth Panel Survey. Data were analyzed using ANOVA (the generalized linear model), multiple regression, and quantile regression analysis. The principal results were as follows. First, 15.15% of adolescents reported depression symptoms, and 15.57% reported somatic symptoms. Second, levels of depression were significantly different among classes with a different level of private educational expenditure. Third, depression level was significantly negatively associated with private educational expenditure, in that the higher the private educational expenditure, the lower the depression level. Fourth, the effect of private educational expenditure on adolescent depression was significant at the 70~90th quantile regression, suggesting that private educational expenditure was associated with a higher level of depression symptoms. The results indicate that private education was viewed as a consumption commodity rather than a complementary educational practice or investment in human capital. Private education as a commodity might induce the highly developed and costly private education market. In turn, there is an increased financial burden for education at one end of the social-economic continuum and depression caused by relative deprivation at the other end.

The Effect of Governments Regulation on Private Education Expenditure

The Effect of Governments Regulation on Private Education Expenditure

Changes in Consumption Expenditures among Baby-boomers and Young-olds: Latent Transition Analysis

The aim of this study was to examine the longitudinal transition of consumption expenditures among both baby-boomers and young-olds in South Korea. We used data from the 6th (2016) and the 7th (2018) waves of the Korean Longitudinal Study of Ageing (KLoSA). The final sample comprised 1,806 baby-boomers (age range=53-61 in 2016) and 1,483 young-olds (age range=65-74 in 2016). Consumption expenditures were observed with nine types of expenses: food, eating out, public education, private education, housing, health-care, clothing, cultural entertainment, and savings. According to the results from latent transition analysis (LTA), three consumption subgroups were identified among baby-boomers: “non-expenditure for education (NE, 69.7%)” group, “high-public education expenditures (PE, 10.7%)” group, and “high-public and private education expenditures (PPE, 19.6%)” group. For baby-boomers, NE and PE were more likely to remain the same type throughout the two waves, and PPE was most likely to move to NE two years later. Meanwhile, the consumption expenditures of young-olds were divided into “low-saving (LS, 63.7%)” group, “high-saving (HS, 40%)” group, and “education cost-centered (EC, 5.3%)” group. In the case of young-olds, the transition between the groups was unlikely to occur across the two waves which can be interpreted as having fewer life cycle changes than baby-boomers. This study suggests that it is necessary to take into account the difference between the generations when understanding longitudinal transition of consumption expenditures.

Analysis of changes in private education expenditure time series for each subject according to school level, province, and income level

Analysis of changes in private education expenditure time series for each subject according to school level, province, and income level

Sampling design, relative standard error, and interpretations of the Survey of Private Education Expenditure

Sampling design, relative standard error, and interpretations of the Survey of Private Education Expenditure

The fluctuation of the income effect removed private education expenditure by school level and province

The fluctuation of the income effect removed private education expenditure by school level and province

Causal effects of family income on educational investment and child outcomes: Evidence from a policy reform in Japan

The Child Allowance Policy (CAP) in Japan, a nationwide cash transfer program for families with children, was designed to increase household expenditures toward children. Using unforeseen changes in the CAP that occurred due to the electoral results as a source of exogenous variation in income in the early 2010s, this paper examines the causal impact of family income on households’ private educational expenditures and child outcomes in the short-run, based on a longitudinal parent-child survey. The ordinary least squares (OLS) and first-differenced (FD) results show that family income is in most cases positively correlated with child's cognitive outcomes, and, to a lesser extent, with families’ educational expenditure on their children. Based on the FD instrumental variable (FD-IV) estimation, using unexpected changes in CAP payments as an instrument, we find positive income effects on educational expenditure in the short-run. However, we did not find statistically significant impacts on children's cognitive outcomes.