Robotic Printing Research Articles

Hardware and software complex for robotic bioprinting on patients

The study presents the development of a software and hardware complex for robotic printing on patients, which is essentially an in situ bioprinter. The description of the technology of in situ bioprinting, its main stages is presented. The requirements for the developed complex are revealed. A description of the design of the working body is giv-en. The development of a laser scanner is described, advantages and disadvantages are revealed. The graphical user interface of the developed complex was also presented.

Modelling, Analysis and Comparison of Robot Energy Consumption for Three-Dimensional Concrete Printing Technology

The technology used for the 3D printing of buildings from concrete is currently a very relevant and developing topic and appears to be especially advantageous in terms of sustainable production. An important aspect of the sustainability assessment is the energy efficiency of the printing robots. Printing robots consume a significant amount of energy when printing. It is important to analyse this energy thoroughly and to be able to predict it in order to optimise the movement and control of printing robots to reduce energy consumption. In that paper, we analyse in detail the energy consumption of printing robots, which has not yet been thoroughly investigated in the context of 3D printing building applications. We present a methodology to develop an energy consumption model for a printing robot, specifically developed and optimized for this technology. Our methodology incorporates an innovative approach to determine reduced-efficiency maps, allowing for the inclusion of difficult-to-measure drive efficiency parameters in the model. This results in a comprehensive model of the energy consumption of the printing robot, reflecting its operating characteristics in a real-world environment. An open control system of the printing robot is used for the measurement of energy quantities, and specially developed software tools are introduced. We also present the first direct comparison of the energy consumption of different printing robots when following a uniform printing trajectory. The comparison is made based on the presented methodology to obtain and compare actual energy data from workplaces with printing robots. The methodology combines measured data with energy simulations from ABB RobotStudio, enabling energy comparisons between industrially articulated robots and real printing robots, including the ABB IRB4600, the gantry printing robot, and the printing robot. The experiments clearly demonstrate that the kinematic structure of printing robots significantly affects their energy consumption in 3D printing concrete. Based on the conducted methodologies and analyses, we identify key aspects of energy consumption of printing robots in 3D Construction Printing or 3D Concrete Printing (3DCP) technology. In doing so, we bring a new perspective and provide a basis for further research and development in this previously understudied area.

Visual control for robotic 3D printing on a moving platform

In recent years, there has been significant progress in developing specialized 3D printing techniques that cater to various demanding applications. However, the current state of this technology is challenged when it comes to complex in situ printing scenarios, which require a controlled printing platform. The lack of a stable printing platform is a fundamental limitation of its use in in situ applications. To address this issue, we present a novel platform-independent 3D fabrication process that enables printing on platforms with non-cooperative movement. The process overcomes the challenge of high-speed tracking, motion compensation, and real-time printing by developing a closed-loop visual feedback-controlled robotic printing process. The proposed process incorporates a marker-based visual detection and tracking controller setup, which is discussed in detail. The algorithm consists of two loops running asynchronously: a high-speed inner control loop and an outer measurement loop. This setup enables precise and accurate tracking of the printing platform, compensating for any disturbances during the printing process. Our experimental results demonstrate the successful printing of simple linear geometries, even with low-disturbing platform velocities. Moreover, the tracking controllers' ability to handle measurement occlusion is validated, showing the proposed process's robustness and effectiveness. Our work provides a significant step towards enabling 3D printing in complex in situ printing scenarios.

Advancing additive manufacturing: 3D‐printing of hybrid natural fiber sandwich (Nona/Soy‐PLA) composites through filament extrusion and its effect on thermomechanical properties

AbstractThe additive manufacturing technique represents a technological advancement post the industrial revolution, enabling the development of intricate products with minimal waste. In the automotive sector, polymer extrusion‐based additive manufacturing is predominantly employed for part customization. Recently, reinforced polymer matrices have been used to enhance structural integrity, primarily utilizing synthetic materials. Due to environmental concerns, some recent studies have explored the incorporation of natural fiber reinforcement in polymer matrices for 3D‐printed products. Most research has focused on filler reinforcement, limiting investigations to a single type of reinforcement. To bridge this gap and enhance composite performance, our research introduces a novel method for 3D printing composites. This involves stacking sequences using two different natural fiber‐reinforced polylactic acid (PLA) filaments, namely Nona and Soy, respectively. Mechanical testing reveals that the stacking sequence significantly influences the mechanical properties of the 3D‐printed composites. The 3D‐printed composite with Soy/PLA skin stacks exhibits the highest tensile strength of 74.82 MPa. Thermal analysis shows minor changes in glass transition temperature (Tg) and a consistent degree of crystallinity (10.01%). Notable differences in thermal expansion are observed due to the stacking sequence. Fatigue analysis demonstrates the durability of hybrid composites, enduring over 42,000 cycles with minimal deformation compared with to pure fiber‐reinforced 3D‐printed composites. Morphological analysis reveals excellent fiber–matrix interaction and bonding between stacks. The observations confirm that the developed material can be potentially used for developing structurally enhanced composites for lightweight applications. Moreover, the proposed methodology can be adapted for different 3D printing matrices, including robotic printing with multiple axes, making it suitable for various industrial sectors.Highlights Utilization of 3D printing technology for the development of agro‐waste fiber products. Hybridizing the 3D‐printed composite enhanced the fatigue life. New additive manufacturing technique for developing structurally enhanced composites.

Calibration of Static Errors and Compensation of Dynamic Errors for Cable-driven Parallel 3D Printer

As rigid robots suffer from the higher inertia of their rigid links, cable-driven parallel robots (CDPRs) are more suitable for large-scale three-dimensional (3D) printing tasks due to their outstanding reconfigurability, high load-to-weight ratio, and extensive workspace. In this paper, a parallel 3D printing robot is proposed, comprising three pairs of driving cables to control the platform motion and three pairs of redundant cables to adjust the cable tension. To improve the motion accuracy of the moving platform, the static kinematic error model is established, and the error sensitivity coefficient is determined to reduce the dimensionality of the optimization function. Subsequently, the self-calibration positions are determined based on the maximum cable length error in the reachable workspace. A self-calibration method is proposed based on the genetic algorithm to solve the kinematic parameter deviations. Additionally, the dynamic errors are effectively reduced by compensating for the elastic deformation errors of the cable lengths. Furthermore, an experimental prototype is developed. The results of dynamic error compensation after the self-calibration indicate a 67.4% reduction in terms of the maximum error along the Z-axis direction. Finally, the developed prototype and proposed calibration and compensation methods are validated through the printing experiment.

Design and development of a small-scale cement-based 3D printing robot extrusion nozzle

Additive manufacturing (AM), also known as three-dimensional (3D) printing, offers great potential to create complex structures layer by layer from computer-aided design (CAD) models. Despite advancements in printable concrete technology, controlling printing quality remains a challenge associated with both the geometric and materials design of the printer nozzle, especially for small-scale printing that may be required by small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs). Therefore, this study explored the design and development of a robot nozzle system, optimised for a small-scale 3D printing of cement-based structures. Key design considerations included weight, nozzle diameter/shape, material compatibility, flow control, mixing mechanism, temperature resistance, cost-effectiveness, adaptability, safety, and ease of maintenance. Iterative designs were developed, focusing on stress concentration mitigation and material flow optimisation. The challenge of incorporating mixing mechanisms during nozzle designs was discussed, leading to the adoption of an on-demand accelerator spraying system. This method involved a micro-peristaltic pump connected to an accelerator tank, spraying accelerator onto the surface of the deposited material, as the robot moved along its programmed path. Evidently, both the nozzle design and the spraying approach improved the buildability and print quality of the extrusion-based 3D-printed cement-based structures.

An Exploration of The Recent Advancements in Drawing Robot Technology

The purpose of this research review article is to explore the recent advancements in drawing robot technology. Drawing robots are automated systems that can create art through their movements. These robots are able to replicate intricate designs and patterns with a high degree of accuracy, and they can be programmed to generate art automatically. This article will explore the various types of drawing robots available, the various components and technologies that power these robots, and the advancements in this field that have been made in recent years. This article will first look at the different types of drawing robots available, such as industrial robots, 3D printing robots, and computer-controlled drawing robots. It will examine the various components that power these robots, such as motors, sensors, and software, as well as how these components are used to generate art. It will also discuss the various advancements that have been made in drawing robot technology in recent years, including improved accuracy, increased speed, and more efficient algorithms. The article will then look at the various applications of these robots, such as in art, manufacturing, and medical fields. It will explore the advantages and disadvantages of using drawing robots, and will consider the various ethical concerns that accompany the use of these robots. Finally, it will look at the potential future applications of drawing robot technology, such as in education and healthcare. This research review article provides an overview of the various aspects of drawing robot technology, including the various types, components, and advancements. It examines the various applications of these robots, the advantages and disadvantages of using them, and the ethical considerations associated with them. Finally, it looks at the potential future applications of drawing robot technology.

An Open PLC-Based Robot Control System for 3D Concrete Printing

Three-dimensional concrete printing technology is currently a very topical and developing subject. There is a large number of applications worldwide where this technology can be used. In connection with this technology, the development of custom industrial robotic systems and their control is essential. Conventional closed-loop control system platforms do not provide sufficiently flexible solutions. This paper presents a control system for a unique printing robot that, thanks to its openness and unified platform, will enable simple and fast analysis and testing of key aspects in terms of control and guidance of the printing robot for additive manufacturing applications in the construction industry. The aim of this paper is to introduce the concept of an open PLC-based control system and to demonstrate its usefulness in the task of designing and implementing model-based control. All steps, from the analysis of the printing robot itself and identification of inertial parameters to the actual design and implementation of the control, can be executed in a unified Matlab/Simulink environment using various add-ons and toolboxes thanks to the open control system platform. This solution brings significant savings in terms of programming and prototyping time. The open control system was used to control an experimental model of a printing robot, serving as a test bed for the final version of the printing robot, and the results obtained were evaluated.

Z-direction performance and failure behavior of 3D printed continuous fiber reinforced composites with sinusoidal structure

The 3D printing process for continuous fiber reinforced composites (CFRCs) has many benefits, but it still faces an unsolved issue: poor performance in the Z-direction (through-thickness). To address this problem, a novel Z-direction enhancement method was proposed to optimize the fiber arrangement in the Z-direction within parts by altering the in-plane structure and out-of-plane configuration of CFRCs. Based on the bioinspired structural design and the 7-axis 3D printing robot, the sine-surface-layered CFRCs (Sin-CFRCs) were fabricated. Then, the Z-direction load-bearing capacity of Sin-CFRCs was characterized by the short-beam shear test and the three-point bending test, and the effect of structural parameters on the Z-direction performance were further examined. Moreover, Z-direction enhancement mechanisms were summarized by studying the mechanical behavior and the fracture mechanism. Finally, the results revealed a substantial improvement in the Z-direction performance of Sin-CFRCs compared to plane-layered CFRCs. The interlayer shear strength (ILSS) increased by 51.7% from 18.5 MPa to 28.1 MPa, and the flexural modulus rose by 22% from 13526 MPa to 16506 MPa. Moreover, the flexural fracture energy showed a significant improvement of 126%. These enhancements in performance can be attributed to the force field redistribution and the multiscale periodic modulus mismatch of Sin-CFRCs. As a result, the Z-direction load-bearing capacity and the energy absorption capability of Sin-CFRCs were significantly enhanced. This research opens up new possibilities for enhancing the Z-direction performance or even controlling the anisotropy of 3D printed CFRCs.

Ink Based on the Tunable Swollen Microsphere for a 3D Printing Hydrogel with Broad-Range Mechanical Properties.

The development of the effective 3D printing strategy for diverse functional monomers is still challenging. Moreover, the conventional 3D printing hydrogels are usually soft and fragile due to the lack of an energy dissipation mechanism. Herein, a microsphere mediating ink preparation strategy is developed to provide tailored rheological behavior for various monomer direct ink writings. The chitosan microspheres are used as an exemplary material due to their tunable swelling ratio under the acid-drived electrostatic repulsion of the protonated amino groups. The rheological behaviors of the swollen chitosan microsphere (SCM) are independent on the monomer types, and various functional secondary polymers could be carried at a wide loading ratio by the acid driving. The SCM reinforces the hydrogel as the sacrificial bonds. With the adjustable composition, the 3D printing hydrogel mechanical properties are tunable in wide windows: strength (0.4-1.01 MPa), dissipated energy (0.11-3.25 MJ m-3), and elongation at break (47-626%). With the excellent printing and mechanical properties, the SCM inks enable multi-functional integration for soft device production, such as 4D printing robots and wearable strain sensors. We anticipate that this microsphere mediating 3D printing strategy can inspire new possibilities for the design of the robust hydrogels with a broad range of functionalities and mechanical performances.

Adaptive Estimation and Detection of Filament Width Deviation during 3D Robotic Printing of Construction Materials

3D Concrete Printing (3DCP) is an emerging topic in both industry and research, it helps to save construction time while increasing the complexity of building objects, this advantage allows to print urban furniture of simple shapes from recyclable materials, as well as complex shapes with variable and greater curvature. The 3DCP process is performed by a complex system composed of different parts including robot, pump and materials. The quality of printing can be affected by changes of material behavior and imperfect combination of printing system parameters. Conventional printing tasks require human operator to make decision for the intervention on the printing system when the printing quality deteriorates, which does not meet the requirement for a closed-loop control of the printing quality. In this work, we propose an integrated approach based on Fault Detection and Isolation method for real-time monitoring of printing quality and automatic detection and isolation of a geometric fault that occurs to the printed object during a robotized 3D concrete printing process.

Fabricating Topologically Optimized Tree-Like Pavilions Using Large-Scale Robotic 3D Printing Techniques

This research addresses innovations in building structural components through the generative design technique Bi-directional Evolutionary Structural Optimization (BESO) and the application of large-scale 3D robotic printing to produce efficient and elegant spatial structures. The innovative pavilion discussed in this paper demonstrates a design process and the ambitions of the research group through a full-scale model of large-span spatial structures. The focus of this work is the use of a modified BESO technique to optimize the structure, which features branches of various sizes and then applies 'skin' surfaces according to the direction of the main structure. The innovative production, construction, and assembling methodologies are to replace welded ultimately, forged, and cast components with large robotic 3D printed components and bolting methods. The advantages of the new design and construction process are less labor, fewer joints, shorter assembling time, lower cost & more efficient material usage and more complex & elegant large structural form.

Toward Swarm Manufacturing: Architecting a Cooperative 3D Printing System

AbstractSwarm manufacturing is a new paradigm for distributed manufacturing, where each factory uses an army of mobile manufacturing robots working together to manufacture desired products. It focuses on building factories within a local supply chain, where multiple products can be produced to meet changing customer demand from mass manufacturing to on-demand production of customized products. Cooperative 3D printing (C3DP) is a primitive form of swarm manufacturing, where multiple mobile 3D printing robots work together cooperatively to print the desired part, representing a major step toward enabling swarm manufacturing. At the core of C3DP lies the chunk-based printing strategy. This strategy splits the desired part into small chunks. The chunks are then assigned and scheduled to be printed by individual printing robots. In our previous work, we presented various hardware and software components of C3DP, such as mobile 3D printers, chunk-based slicing, scheduling, and simulation. This paper presents a fully integrated and functional C3DP platform with all necessary components and outlines how they work in unison from a system-level perspective. Specifically, the new architecture of hardware and software includes a set of new chunking strategies, a scalable scheduler for multi-robot printing, a SCARA-based printing robot, a mobile platform for robot transportation, a system of modular floor tiles, and a charging station for the mobile platform. Finally, we demonstrate the capability of the system using two case studies with successful large-scale prints.

Large-scale robotic extrusion-based additive manufacturing with living mycelium materials

Environmental pollution and scarcity of natural resources have led to an increased interest in developing more sustainable materials. Mycelium material fabrication is an emerging bio-based and circular technology to produce materials ranging from foam to particleboard applications. In this process, organic waste streams – such as agricultural waste – are valorised, while biodegradable material is created at the end of its life cycle; a process fitting with the spirit of a circular economy. Up to now, mycelium composites have mostly been grown in moulds, by packing a substrate of lignocellulosic fibres with a fungal strain. This fabrication method restricts not only the size and geometry of the final product, but also the access to oxygen needed for the organism to grow in the centre of the material. Additive manufacturing can potentially overcome those limitations. To establish the groundwork of 3D printing with living mycelium material, this paper provides guidance regarding the technological requirements for 3D-printing fungal material. The purpose is to generate scientific insights on all relevant challenges, processes, production steps by disentangling interdependent process variables ranging from biocompatibility with the living organism, the robotic fabrication system and hardware, the determination of the printing parameter and the sterile printing process to rheological, biological, and geometric properties. Therefore, an extrusion system is developed specifically for robotic printing living biological material. Various manufacturing processes, such as the concentration of ingredients, impact of autoclaving, and time on the viscosity, extrusion pressure, toolpath geometry, the nozzle size, printing speed and mycelium growth, are investigated in detail. These parameters, combined with the rheological and biological behaviour of living material deposition led to the emergence of an experimental fabrication methodology, using a custom robotic manufacturing set-up.

Nonplanar 3D Printing of Bifurcating Forms.

The introduction of robotic arms in additive manufacturing enables the scaling up of three-dimensional (3D) printing processes and the realization of nonplanar path geometries. As a result, novel design potential is unlocked by having control over the layered configuration of paths in the object, and 3D printing becomes viable for architectural applications. However, the various challenges associated with creating feasible nonplanar layered paths for the realization of large-scale objects are hindering their integration in the design process and broad use. This work presents methods that contribute to the flexible and intuitive design of nonplanar layered paths for robotic printing. We focus on the challenges related to the realization of single-shell bifurcating structures, with emphasis on the paths' behavior on the bifurcating moments of the shapes. Our methods are based on the use of design techniques that originate from implicit shape representation and on the detection of critical points on the surface through the lens of distance functions. We present fabricated prototypes printed with nonplanar paths that showcase the possibilities of our methods.

Workspace analysis and design of large-scale cable-driven printing robot considering cable mass and mobile platform orientation

This paper proposes a methodology to determine the printable workspace of a cable robot by taking cable mass and mobile platform orientation into account. This workspace has a characteristic feature of avoiding the collision of lower cables with the previous layers of the structure during 3D printing while maintaining cable tensions inside the prescribed positive tension bounds. Since redundant robot is taken into consideration, the printable workspace possesses multiple solutions and hence, a unique solution needs to be selected based upon a selection criterion. Therefore, to select a unique solution, this paper proposes a selection criterion to minimize cable sagging and compares it with the conventional selection criterion of minimizing cable tension. For comparative analysis, various factors such as printable workspace, cable tensions and platform deflection of the robot are considered. The proposed selection criterion is further utilized to study the impact of variation in the geometric parameters on the printable workspace and the capacity margin of the robot. Finally, an optimal design is proposed using genetic algorithm for the desired printable workspace as well as constraint minimum capacity margin with an objective to minimize the installation space of the cable robot.

Generation of Efficient Iso-Planar Printing Path for Multi-Axis FDM Printing

The emerging multi-axis fused deposition modeling (FDM) printing process is a powerful technology for fabricating complicated 3D models that otherwise would require extensive support structures or suffer the severe stair-case effect if printed on a conventional three-axis FDM printer. However, because of the addition of two rotary axes which enables the printing nozzle to change its orientation continuously, and the fact that the printing layer is now curved, determining how a nozzle printing path to cover the layer becomes a non-trivial issue, since the rotary axes of the printer in general have a much worse kinematic capacity than the linear axes. In this paper, specifically targeting robotic printing, we first propose an efficiency indicator called the material deposition rate which considers both the local geometry of the layer surface and the kinematic capacities of the printer. By maximizing this indicator globally, a best drive plane direction is found, and then the classic iso-planar method is adopted to generate the printing path for the layer, which not only upholds the specified printing quality but also strives to maximize the kinematic capacities of the printer to minimize the total printing time. Preliminary experiments in both computer simulation and physical printing are carried out and the results give a positive confirmation on the proposed method.

Structural design of zoomorphic robot

In recent years many Zoomorphic robots have come into usage and these robots have an Animal based structure and they are known as social robots. The mechanical legs base gives the robot have amazing manoeuvrability so, the flexibility that decides the commands can be executed. Naturally, where these flexible components in ligaments largely add to the amazing headway abilities, the zoomorphic robot is assembly. This novel work deals with the design and development of a zoomorphic robot structure. The Kinematics Solutions are determined for the created structure utilizing a specially designed 3D printing robot. An Arduino application has used, to control the robot for its locomotion and positioning of the legs.

Robotic Prototyping of Paper-Based Field-Effect Transistors with Rolled-Up Semiconductor Microtubes

In this article, we propose a robotic rapid prototyping technology for fabricating a new type of paper-based field-effect transistors (FETs). Unlike the existing paper-based electronics developed primarily based on the printing of conductive and semiconductive inks on paper substrates, this new prototyping technology integrates single rolled-up semiconductive microtubes into a device with robotically printed electrodes as the semiconductive channel, through robotic micromanipulation techniques. To improve the uniformity of the printed silver (Ag) ink electrodes, we designed a time-shift mechanism to compensate for the nonuniform ink dispersion at the beginning and ending phases of the robotic printing process. In addition, image processing and motion control algorithms were developed to enable automatic transfer of the prefabricated microtube from its hosting silicon wafer to the printed electrodes on a paper substrate. The effectiveness of the proposed technology was verified by fabricating the paper-based FETs with semiconductive zinc oxide (ZnO) microtubes. Preliminary tests on the mobility of the fabricated ZnO FET demonstrated improved performance over the conventional paper-based FETs with printed semiconductive channels.

Robotic 3D clay printing of prefabricated non-conventional wall components based on a parametric-integrated design

3D Printing (3DP) techniques and materials applied in construction-scale are currently under constant investigation, with notable results published at research and experimental level. While their great importance has been discussed extensively, very scarce detailed research has been published on 3DP parameters that are incorporated into the design process at an early stage to assess their impact on 3D printing performance, focusing on geometric conformity aspects. This work aims to provide a comprehensive parametric design investigation, driven by 3DP parameters, related to infill and overhang control, which can enhance a deeper understanding of their use in construction scale of non-conventional wall components, placing emphasis on construction time performance minimization. To this end, the paper initially illustrates the development of a parametric-integrated algorithm for toolpath planning and 3DP control using an industrial robot, capable of being universally adjusted based on open-source extruders with small, medium and large nozzle diameters. In this study, earth and clay-based materials are chosen because of their lower environmental impact and recyclability compared to concrete-based materials. Secondly, important printing parameters for toolpath planning, robotic and nozzle control, as well as robotic printing time, are presented and discussed in detail through 3DP experimental tests and a non-conventional wall study. The correlation of parameters in the early stage of design allows the assessment of their effectiveness to be used in construction-scale of non-conventional geometries towards minimization of 3DP time performance.