This article examines the scientific evidence on the intersection of music and mathematics in primary and secondary education, analyzing conceptual foundations such as methodologies and strategies, and demonstrating how their integration improves teaching and student development. A qualitative systematic review, following the PRISMA 2020 guidelines, analyzed 15 studies published between 1998 and 2024 in the Scopus, Web of Science, and EBSCO databases. These studies focused on the cognitive benefits of music education and pedagogical strategies for integrating mathematics learning. The findings present three themes: 1) the cognitive, neurobiological, and educational impact of music education on the mathematics learning process; 2) the relationship between musical skills and logical-mathematical reasoning; and 3) pedagogical proposals and school programs that connect music and mathematics. The results indicate that musical training enhances executive functions, such as working memory, attention, and self-regulation, while facilitating the understanding of abstract concepts through symbolization, rhythm, and pattern recognition. Furthermore, multisensory programs and innovative activities demonstrate that music improves students’ motivation and engagement. The evidence supports music as a valuable pedagogical resource that provides inclusive and meaningful learning experiences when integrated into the curriculum.

This study addresses the limited research on the formulation and implementation of the Independent Curriculum in rural primary and secondary schools, despite its critical influence on teaching quality and student learning outcomes. The research aims to (1) analyze the curriculum policy formulation process at SDN 1 Jerowaru and SMPN 2 Jerowaru, (2) describe its implementation in both schools, and (3) evaluate its impact on the quality of teaching and learning. Employing a qualitative case study design, data were collected from 34 purposively selected participants—including principals, curriculum coordinators, teachers, students, parents, and education supervisors—through semi-structured interviews, non-participant observations, and document analysis. Thematic analysis, supported by NVivo software, revealed that the formulation process was collaborative and contextually responsive, with school leaders and teachers demonstrating strong conceptual understanding but expressing a need for greater operational clarity. Implementation strategies varied by context: SDN 1 adopted project-based, student-centered learning integrating local environmental and cultural themes, while SMPN 2 emphasized subject-based instruction aligned with national standards. The Independent Curriculum was found to enhance teaching quality by fostering teacher autonomy, creativity, and reflective practice, while students exhibited improved critical thinking, collaboration, and communication skills. The study concludes that successful curriculum reform in rural contexts depends on the alignment of policy design, leadership, teacher competence, and local adaptability. It contributes theoretical insights into decentralized curriculum implementation and offers practical recommendations for professional development, mentoring, and resource distribution. Future research is recommended to explore the sustainability of such reforms, digital integration, and implementation in resource-constrained environments.

Sources of mathematics and science self-efficacy in primary and secondary education: A systematic literature review

The review analyses educational difficulties alongside teaching possibilities that arise within Timor-Leste's primary school mathematics education. Many barriers obstruct effective mathematics teaching despite extensive school improvement initiatives, such as creating problems with unqualified teachers and limited educational resources, which make student understanding complex because of language barriers. The post-conflict recovery context of Timor-Leste presents more difficulties for the educational system because it has damaged the school infrastructure and teacher development processes. Recent structures of curriculum reform target the modernisation of teaching techniques with peer collaborative initiatives that support educator professional development as administrative forces advance mother tongue-based educational programs for increased student comprehension through native language instruction. This review combines information from various studies about the current mathematics education status of Timor-Leste, which helps policy leaders and education professionals gain important knowledge. The mathematics education system of Timor-Leste requires special interventions that combine competent teacher training with appropriate financial resources to support teachers in resolving existing difficulties while utilising language effectively for developmental gains

Educational access and attainment in Nepal have improved significantly over the last decades, but inequalities based on gender and geographical location continue to affect learning outcomes and higher-education enrollment. This study examines the patterns and inter-census changes in literacy, enrollment, educational attainment, and higher education distribution in Nepal. A quantitative, descriptive, and comparative research approach was used by utilizing secondary data such as the National Population and Housing Census (NPHC) 2021 and the earlier census data, complemented by education management information system (EMIS) reports, and publications from NPC and the University Grants Commission. Gender gaps over time and across regions were analyzed through comparative methods. The findings reveal notable increases in literacy, attendance, near-universal primary education, and greater female participation. However, gender disparities persist in higher education, STEM fields, and access in certain regions. The location of universities and field of study choices remains structurally biased, limiting fair progress. The transformation of education in Nepal is still incomplete. It is now essential to focus policies on improving quality, retention, gender-responsive strategies, and diversifying higher education opportunities to foster equitable and sustainable progress.

This study aims to analyze the influence of competence and work motivation on employee performance at the Human Resources Training Center of the Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education. The research employs a descriptive quantitative approach with data collected through questionnaires distributed to 66 civil servant employees using a total sampling technique. Data were analyzed using multiple linear regression to examine both partial and simultaneous effects. The findings show that competence and work motivation positively and significantly influence employee performance. Among the two, work motivation is identified as the most dominant factor in improving performance. These results highlight the importance of enhancing employee competence through continuous training and maintaining motivation through recognition, incentives, and a supportive work environment to strengthen overall organizational performance

This bibliometric study maps gamification trends in science education—instructional modes (online, face-to-face, blended), content areas, educational levels, and philosophical foundations—to address gaps in empirical perspectives beyond descriptive/quantitative analyses. We systematically analyzed 15 peer-reviewed, open- access Scopus-indexed papers published 2015– 2025, classifying them by delivery mode, science discipline, learner level, and theoretical frameworks. Findings reveal dominant trends in blended/online modalities, secondary-level chemistry/physics applications, and pragmatist and constructivist philosophies, highlighting underexplored areas like primary education and face-to-face implementation. These insights guide educators and policymakers toward targeted gamification strategies, enhancing science learning engagement and outcomes.

Elementary students’ mathematical thinking is frequently constrained by persistent misconceptions and an overreliance on procedural instruction. International assessments of mathematical literacy consistently report lower levels of achievement among students in many developing countries, underscoring the need for instructional approaches that promote conceptual understanding rather than rote learning. Scaffolding, understood as temporary and adaptive instructional support, has been widely acknowledged as an effective means of facilitating students’ conceptual development. Nevertheless, its classroom enactment—particularly the processes through which support is responsively adjusted and gradually withdrawn—remains insufficiently documented and systematically analyzed in empirical research. This study aims to examine the forms of scaffolding employed by teachers, their responsive strategies in addressing student errors, and the observable indicators of scaffolding reduction (fading) in mathematics instruction grounded in visual pattern recognition and comparative reasoning. A descriptive qualitative methodology was adopted, using a case study design involving three upper elementary school students. Data were collected through analyses of students’ written work, classroom interaction observations, and semi-structured interviews. The data were analyzed thematically within the framework of contingent scaffolding. The findings indicate differentiated learning trajectories among the participants. Student MA demonstrated a shift from intuitive verbal descriptions to symbolic comparative reasoning following interactive scaffolding. Student RFM exhibited independent formal reasoning from the outset, requiring minimal instructional support. In contrast, student IAM experienced a substantial conceptual transition after receiving explicit instructional intervention. Notably, all three students were ultimately able to generalize that the number of blue triangles was consistently less than half of the total number of triangles. These results highlight the critical role of adaptive and contingent scaffolding in fostering conceptual understanding and learning autonomy in elementary mathematics. By documenting the forms, timing, and transitions of instructional support, this study contributes to the empirical literature on scaffolding practices in primary education. Importantly, the findings provide a novel account of how scaffolding is dynamically enacted and strategically faded in response to students’ errors, enabling a progression from descriptive to symbolic proportional reasoning. The identification of concrete indicators of scaffolding reduction aligned with students’ emerging autonomy offers theoretically grounded and practice-oriented implications for the design of adaptive instructional support in elementary mathematics classrooms. Keywords: instructional scaffolding; mathematical reasoning; mathematics education; proportional reasoning; gradual fading of support.

This study investigates pedagogical practices for managing large classes in Malawi's primary education system, where overcrowded classrooms, driven by Free Primary Education and global education agendas, strain limited resources. Utilizing an exploratory research design, data were collected from six Teacher Training Colleges and nine public teaching practice schools across Malawi’s six education divisions. Participants included teacher educators, student teachers, teachers, head teachers, and teaching practice coordinators. Qualitative and quantitative methods, including interviews, focus group discussions, questionnaires, and classroom observations, were employed to examine effective pedagogical strategies, challenges, and patterns in large class instruction. Findings indicate that group work is the primary strategy used, with group leaders acting as assistant teachers and behavior monitors. However, challenges such as limited space, insufficient learning materials, and time constraints hinder effective implementation. Heterogeneous grouping and peer teaching are common but limit engagement due to dominant learners and resource scarcity. Barriers such as space limitations, material shortages, and time pressures interact to constrain sound pedagogy, forcing teachers to prioritize assessment over instruction. The Initial Primary Teacher Education Curriculum lacks adequate focus on large class management, and systemic issues, including low remuneration and limited professional development, demotivate educators. These findings highlight the need for targeted interventions to support effective teaching in resource-constrained, overcrowded classrooms.

To estimate the prevalence and identify the determinants of assistive device usage in daily life among older adults in India. Cross-sectional analysis of nationally representative survey data. India PARTICIPANTS: A total of 66 316 adults aged ≥45 years with complete information on assistive device use from Wave 1 of the Longitudinal Ageing Study in India, 2017-2018. The primary outcome was self-reported use of any assistive device, including visual, hearing, mobility or other assistive devices. There were no predefined secondary outcome measures. Sociodemographic and health-related variables were analysed as covariates to assess factors associated with assistive device use. The prevalence of assistive device use was 38.61% (95% CI: 37.73% to 39.50%). Use increased with age, from 34.48% among adults aged 45-59 years to 52.07% among those aged ≥75 years (adjusted prevalence ratios (aPR) 1.30; 95% CI: 1.25 to 1.35). Prevalence was higher among men (40.94%) than women (37.51%) (aPR 1.06; 95% CI: 1.03 to 1.09), among individuals with education above primary level (54.28%) compared with those with up to primary education (28.35%) (aPR 1.42; 95% CI: 1.36 to 1.48), and among urban residents (53.88%) vs rural residents (31.16%) (aPR 1.18; 95% CI: 1.14 to 1.22). A clear socioeconomic gradient was observed, with prevalence increasing from 27.65% in the poorest to 50.66% in the richest wealth quintile (aPR 1.32; 95% CI: 1.25 to 1.39). Assistive device use was higher among participants with chronic conditions (47.30%) than those without (28.16%) (aPR 1.15; 95% CI: 1.11 to 1.19) and was markedly higher among those with a prior eye or vision diagnosis (64.93%) compared with those without (14.61%) (aPR 3.94; 95% CI: 3.78 to 4.11). Among users, spectacles or contact lenses were most common (89.26%), followed by walking sticks or walkers (11.62%) and dentures (6.15%). State-level prevalence varied widely, ranging from 71.27% in Goa to 13.44% in Arunachal Pradesh. Assistive device use was reported by less than half of Indian adults aged ≥45 years. The findings reveal clear socioeconomic and geographic inequities in access to assistive devices, with substantially lower use among older adults with less education, those in poorer wealth quintiles and rural residents. These disparities highlight the need for equity-focused interventions that improve accessibility to assistive devices, particularly for socially and economically disadvantaged groups and individuals with chronic conditions.

Cyberattacks in education are a serious concern (e.g., breaches and system intrusions) that teachers need to respond to by cultivating cybersecurity awareness, engaging in continuous professional development, and modeling safe digital practices in their daily work, while technical prevention and mitigation are primarily the responsibility of institutional IT services and system-level governance. Strengthening cybersecurity depends on fostering awareness of how information is collected, analyzed, and used, thereby enabling users to take proactive steps to protect data, which are key components of teachers’ professional media literacy, particularly in managing personal and student information across social media, email, and cloud platforms. This quantitative study was conducted in Hong Kong with 120 early childhood, primary, secondary, and tertiary education teachers (88.3% female, age range = 18–54, Mage = 23.76) via an online survey. The study focused on social media, email, and cloud storage, and administered the Perceived Severity, Perceived Vulnerability, and Self-Efficacy Scales; the Data Protection Strategies Scale; and the Data Fabrication Strategies Scale, along with questions assessing awareness of data protection. Results revealed significant positive relationships among data protection awareness, psychological factors, and use of protection strategies. Awareness and protection strategies were also moderately linked to data fabrication behaviors. The findings indicate concerning gaps in teachers’ awareness of cyberattacks and their limited understanding of media literacy concepts, highlighting the need to integrate comprehensive media literacy training into teacher education programs and also provide intensive, mandatory on-site training for in-service early childhood, primary, secondary, and tertiary education teachers.

(1) Background: Education serves as a catalyst for social transformation toward sustainability, yet limited empirical evidence exists regarding primary education’s contribution to regional sustainable development, particularly in island contexts facing unique environmental and economic pressures. This study examined primary education teachers’ perceptions, practices, and challenges in implementing Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) in Zakynthos, Greece. (2) Methods: A triangulated quantitative approach surveyed a representative sample of 105 primary education teachers from the Zakynthos Primary Education Directorate using a 28-item structured questionnaire assessing ESD knowledge, teaching practices, barriers, and improvement strategies. Teacher questionnaire data were triangulated with KEPEA (Center for Environmental Education and Sustainability) program documentation (103 programs, 2020–2025) and school implementation records from 75 participating schools. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, Mann–Whitney U tests, Kruskal–Wallis tests, and Spearman correlations. (3) Results: Most teachers (65.7%) reported adequate knowledge of sustainable development concepts, with 75.3% incorporating ESD into teaching practice often or very often. Triangulation revealed convergent findings: environmental sustainability dominated teacher perceptions (67.3%) and KEPEA programming (78.4%), while economic sustainability received limited attention (18.1%). Female teachers demonstrated significantly higher ESD knowledge (U = 892.5, p < 0.05, r = 0.34). The majority (98.1%) considered ESD integration important, yet only 48.5% felt adequately prepared to teach sustainability topics. A notable attitude-action gap emerged: while 86.6% valued community partnerships, only 47.6% engaged frequently, and KEPEA documented 33.7% of formal collaborations. Primary barriers included insufficient curriculum time (61.9%) and limited resources (51.4%). Teachers identified training programs (71.4%) and access to educational materials (71.4%) as priority interventions. (4) Conclusions: Primary education teachers in Zakynthos demonstrate strong commitment to ESD but face structural barriers limiting implementation effectiveness. The environmental-economic imbalance suggests a need for professional development, integrating economic sustainability concepts through place-based approaches relevant to the island’s tourism-dependent economy. The attitude-action gap in partnerships indicates structural rather than attitudinal barriers requiring policy intervention. Findings support targeted teacher training, curriculum reform, and strengthened school-community collaboration to enhance ESD’s contribution to regional sustainable development.

The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that about half of maternal and 40% of neonatal deaths occur within 24 hours of childbirth. Many women and newborns, especially among forcibly displaced populations, lack timely access to essential care. While research has examined antenatal and postnatal care (PNC) utilization in low-resource settings, little is known about displaced women raising children with disabilities. This study explores factors influencing PNC utilization among forcibly displaced women in Pakistan, focusing on displacement, maternal health, and childhood impairment. Using secondary data from the 2022 UNHCR Health and Utilization Survey (HAUS), this study examined the relationship between a child's disability and maternal PNC utilization among 2,847 displaced mothers aged 18-49 who had given birth within the past year. Multivariable logistic regression assessed how child impairment influenced PNC use while controlling for socioeconomic, demographic, and healthcare access factors. Among respondents, 65% utilized PNC services, and 17.6% reported having a child with an impairment. Most were married (85.9%), had completed primary education (88.9%), and delivered in public health facilities. Two-thirds had at least one antenatal care (ANC) visit. Child impairment significantly influenced maternal PNC utilization (OR = 1.24; 95% CI: 1.02-1.76). Mothers with tertiary education and children with impairments were less likely to use PNC compared with those with primary education (OR = 0.21; 95% CI: 0.09-0.52). ANC strongly predicted PNC use (OR = 9.99; 95% CI: 3.32-30.05). Other significant predictors included place of delivery, healthcare authorization, and ability to pay. Women who accessed antenatal care were nearly ten times more likely to use postnatal services. Findings highlight the need to strengthen ANC-PNC continuity and address financial, structural, and legal barriers limiting equitable, disability- and displacement-sensitive maternal healthcare in Pakistan.

The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that about half of maternal and 40% of neonatal deaths occur within 24 hours of childbirth. Many women and newborns, especially among forcibly displaced populations, lack timely access to essential care. While research has examined antenatal and postnatal care (PNC) utilization in low-resource settings, little is known about displaced women raising children with disabilities. This study explores factors influencing PNC utilization among forcibly displaced women in Pakistan, focusing on displacement, maternal health, and childhood impairment. Using secondary data from the 2022 UNHCR Health and Utilization Survey (HAUS), this study examined the relationship between a child’s disability and maternal PNC utilization among 2,847 displaced mothers aged 18–49 who had given birth within the past year. Multivariable logistic regression assessed how child impairment influenced PNC use while controlling for socioeconomic, demographic, and healthcare access factors. Among respondents, 65% utilized PNC services, and 17.6% reported having a child with an impairment. Most were married (85.9%), had completed primary education (88.9%), and delivered in public health facilities. Two-thirds had at least one antenatal care (ANC) visit. Child impairment significantly influenced maternal PNC utilization (OR = 1.24; 95% CI: 1.02–1.76). Mothers with tertiary education and children with impairments were less likely to use PNC compared with those with primary education (OR = 0.21; 95% CI: 0.09–0.52). ANC strongly predicted PNC use (OR = 9.99; 95% CI: 3.32–30.05). Other significant predictors included place of delivery, healthcare authorization, and ability to pay. Women who accessed antenatal care were nearly ten times more likely to use postnatal services. Findings highlight the need to strengthen ANC–PNC continuity and address financial, structural, and legal barriers limiting equitable, disability- and displacement-sensitive maternal healthcare in Pakistan.

This research aims to critically examine the ethical integration of artificial intelligence (AI) in education through the perspective of maqāṣid al-sharīʿah, emphasizing the alignment between technological innovation and Islamic moral principles. The methods used are a systematic literature review and thematic content analysis against peer-reviewed publications for the period 2015–2025, which discuss the application of AI in primary, secondary, and higher education. The study identified dominant ethical issues, such as data privacy, algorithmic bias, accountability, human agency, and moral development, which were then mapped to Islamic ethical goals, including ʿadl (justice), amānah (belief), karāmah al-insān (human dignity), and ḥifẓ al-ʿaql (protection of reason). The results of the analysis show that the adoption of AI in education often emphasizes efficiency, personalization, and predictive analytics, but has the potential to reduce learners' autonomy and ethical reasoning. The mapping of maqāṣid al-sharīʿah shows a strong normative conformity, so that Islamic principles can be a moral foundation as well as a practical guide for AI governance. The research contribution is theoretical by bridging the literature on AI ethics and Islamic educational philosophy, as well as practical by offering an integrative framework for AI policymakers, educators, and developers. The integration of maqāṣid al-sharīʿah in AI governance ensures justice, trust, inclusivity, and the development of the whole human being (insān kāmil).

Aim: This study focused on assessing the level of knowledge and adherence to safety procedures among health workers in general hospitals in Ebonyi State, Nigeria. General hospitals are secondary health facilities in the state. Methodology: This study adopted the cross-sectional survey research design. The population for this study was 322 health workers from all the general hospitals in Ebonyi State, Nigeria, were selected using multi-stage sampling procedure. Structured questionnaire was used for data collection. The reliability coefficient of the instrument for Knowledge and Adherence to Safety Procedures Questionnaire was r = 0.86. Mean and standard deviation were used to answer research questions adherence to safety procedures. Chi-square, t-test and analysis of variance (ANOVA) statistic were used to test hypotheses. The entire hypotheses were tested at alpha level of 0.05. Result: The results showed health workers in general hospitals in Ebonyi State had very high (88.2%) level of knowledge of safety procedure and high (3.61±0.82) adherence to safety procedure. Male health workers had low knowledge of safety procedures (38.3%) while female (50.2%) had moderate knowledge. Health workers with NPE (8.3%), PE (2.2%) and SE (25.5%) had low knowledge while TE (61.3%) had high knowledge of safety procedures. Health workers with years of service 1-10 years (44.4%) had moderate knowledge while 11-20years (25.8%), 21-30 (17.7%) and > 30years (0.4%) had low knowledge of safety procedures. Both urban (43.9%) and rural (44.8%) health workers had moderate knowledge of safety procedures. However, health workers had high adherence to safety procedures based on gender, years of service, level of education and location. Furthermore, gender and location does not significantly depend on level of knowledge of safety procedures among health workers in general hospitals in Ebonyi State (p > 0.5) but significantly depend on level of education and years in service (p < 0.05). Moreover, there was no significant difference in the extent of adherence to safety procedures among health workers in general hospitals in Ebonyi State based on gender, years of service and location (p > 0.05). However there was significant difference in levels adherence based on level of education (p < 0.05). Conclusion: The study concludes that health workers in general hospitals in Ebonyi State had high level of adherence to safety procedures. Male health workers had lower levels of adherence than their female counterparts who had moderate level of adherence. The implication is that low adherence among males and those with none formal, primary and secondary education might lead to increase in hospital acquired infection rate.

Educação ambiental para a prevenção de incêndios no mundo: uma revisão da literatura Environmental education fosters environmentally literate citizens capable of addressing sustainability challenges. This article presents a literature review on environmental education and how fire-related topics are approached in primary education worldwide. The review combined quantitative bibliometric analysis and a qualitative systematic review supported by Artificial Intelligence, using Scopus and Web of Science databases. A total of 16,421 articles were identified since 1968, with 4,065 duplicates removed. The annual growth rate of publications was 11.43%. Female researchers ranked highest in productivity and impact (H-index). Core themes in environmental education include climate change, biodiversity, waste management, and ecology. However, only 0.152% of all documents addressed fire education in schools and universities. Most fire-related studies focused on prevention, safety, and forest fire suppression.

Early childhood education is deemed crucial for the child’s future education, and the importance of the transition from early childhood to primary education (TfECtPE) is self-evident. Due to the differences in educational systems, the concept of the TfECtPE varies in different countries. In some countries, it refers to the child’s transition from home-based care to formal education provided by public institutions. Educational authorities in Canada, for instance, have developed family engagement programs to foster constructive interactions among families, kindergartens, schools, and local communities to facilitate this transition. In other countries, it denotes child transition from preschool to primary school. In France, for example, it refers to the transition from “l'école maternelle” (nursery school) to “l'école primaire” (primary school) (Wu, 2013). In China, the TfECtPE is mainly about the transition in teaching materials and methods from kindergarten to primary education (Liu et al., 2021).

Maternal and child undernutrition remains a major public health challenge globally, with the highest burdens observed in low- and middle-income countries. Coexisting maternal and child undernutrition has serious implications for survival, growth, and quality of life.Maternal and child undernutrition is a complex, multifactorial issue influenced by a web of interconnected determinants including health, socio-economic status, education and environmental conditions. To examine the spatial distribution and multilevel determinants of coexisting maternal and child undernutrition in Ethiopia using EDHS data from 2000-2016. We analyzed a weighted sample of 33,445 participants from four consecutive EDHS surveys. Spatial autocorrelation, hotspot, and interpolation analyses were conducted using ArcMap 10.8. Multilevel logistic regression was performed in Stata 17. Cluster variability was assessed using ICC, MOR, and PCV. Variables with p < 0.05 were considered statistically significant. A total of 33,445 weighted sample was used for this study. The prevalence of coexisting maternal and child undernutrition was 22.87% (95% CI: 22.42, 23.32). Spatial analysis result showed that hot spot areas were concentrated in the northern regions especially Tigray, Amhara, and parts of Benishangul-Gumuz. Multilevel logistics regression analysis result revealed that maternal primary education (AOR = 0.88; 95% CI: 0.78, 0.98), secondary/higher education (AOR = 0.38; 95% CI: 0.29, 0.49), medium household wealth (AOR = 0.85; 95% CI: 0.75, 0.97), high household wealth (AOR = 0.78; 95% CI: 0.69, 0.89), child age 12-23 months (AOR = 2.77; 95% CI: 2.44, 3.16), ANC use (AOR = 0.83; 95% CI: 0.75, 0.92), improved toilet (AOR = 0.83; 95% CI: 0.71, 0.98) and regions. Coexisting maternal and child undernutrition shows marked geographic clustering in northern Ethiopia. Strengthening maternal education, improving household economic conditions, enhancing ANC use, and expanding sanitation services particularly in high-risk regions are essential to reduce the burden.

Hindu religious education in elementary schools often remains normative, providing limited space for critical dialogue, even though the teachings of Catur Guru contain essential values for shaping students’ character. This study emphasizes a pedagogical discourse analysis of the implementation of the SUWINDIA model, which is integrated with the Hindu epistemology of Catur Pram??a. The research employs a descriptive qualitative approach within Fairclough’s Critical Discourse Analysis framework, encompassing the dimensions of text, discourse practice, and social practice. Data were collected through participatory observation, in-depth interviews, and document analysis of Catur Guru textbooks. The findings reveal that, at the textual dimension, teachers employ religious vocabulary, metaphors, and cohesion to instill spiritual values; at the level of discourse practice, teacher–student interactions recontextualize the values of Catur Guru through discussion, instruction, and reflection; whereas at the level of social practice, learning functions as a medium for the internalization of devotion, discipline, and spiritual awareness. The implementation of SUWINDIA is shown to align with Catur Pram??a, as it encourages students to learn through direct experience, reasoning, analogy, and sacred teachings. This study contributes to the development of Hindu religious education models that are more dialogical, reflective, and applicable in primary education