Pre-colonial Period Research Articles

Aspect of Intergroup Relations in 21st Century Nigeria: Emblem of Ethnicity, Religious Fundamentalism and National Security Crisis 2000-2014

This paper is on the aspects of intergroup relations in 21st century Nigeria: Emblem of Ethnicity, Religious Fundamentalism and National Security Crisis, 2000-2014. The objective of the paper is to contribute to some existing literature on the state of intergroup relations in Nigeria. Besides, it would provoke further researchers on the subject because the Nigeria state is presently experiencing disintegrating challenges. It is already known by scholars that some contending issues and challenges have not encouraged intergroup relations in 21st century Nigeria but without their examining that of ethnicity, religious fundamentalism and national security threats as addressed in this paper using the available primary and secondary sources discussed in subthemes narration common to histories. With the triumphant entry of democratic rule and its gradual consolidation in this century Nigerians approached this development within a renewal of hope that inter-group contacts of the divergent ethnic nationalities started in the pre-colonial period would be consolidated before now. But the nation-state is yet trapped in woes of ethnicity, religious extremism and national security crisis thereby, aiding the reasons why meaningful inter-ethnic/group relations are eluding Nigeria.Key words: Intergroup Relations, 21st Century, Ethnicity, Religious Fundamentalism, National Security, Crisis

African Americans and criminal justice: an encyclopedia

Does justice exist for Blacks in America? This comprehensive compilation of essays documents the historical and contemporary impact of the law and criminal justice system on people of African ancestry in the United States. African Americans and Criminal Justice: An Encyclopedia comprises descriptive essays documenting the ways in which people of African descent have been victimized by oppressive laws enacted by local, state, and federal authorities in the United States. The entries also describe how Blacks became disproportionately represented in national crime statistics, largely through their efforts to resist legalized oppression in early American history, and present biographies of famous and infamous Black criminal suspects and victims throughout early American history and in contemporary times. Providing coverage of law and criminal justice practices from the precolonial period, including the introduction of African slaves, up to practices in modern-day America, this encyclopedia presents a frank and comprehensive view of how Americans of African descent have come to be viewed as synonymous with criminality. This book represents an essential learning resource for all American citizens, regardless of race or age. 120 A-Z entries on race and criminal justice and famous or infamous African American crime perpetrators or victims Contributions from more than 50 distinguished scholars from many criminal justice/criminology academic programs across the country An index of key persons, events, and legislation

Evolving hunting practices in Gabon: lessons for community-based conservation interventions

Walters, G., J. Schleicher, O. Hymas, and L. Coad. 2015. Evolving hunting practices in Gabon: lessons for community-based conservation interventions. Ecology and Society 20(4):31.http://dx.doi.org/10.5751/ES-08047-200431

ETHNIC RELATIONS IN MULTI-ETHNIC MALAYSIA

The Malaysian society, one of the successful and managed multi-ethnic societies, is replete of imbalances and there still underlie the racial and ethnic disproportions in geographical dwellings, educational and professional fields, and economic and political roles. The modern racial relation in Malaysia is the legacy of pre-colonial and colonial period of history dating back to fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. The unstable demographic balance, the unrestricted immigration policy or the policy of divide and rule by the colonial masters contributed besides other reasons toward the troubled relations between ethnic communities of Malaysia- Malays, Chinese, Indians, and others. But the way the respective Malaysian governments have managed such sour relationship in their socio-economic and political spheres is the lesson that all multiethnic states can learn from.

African Women’s Movements in the Twentieth Century: A Hidden History

Abstract:This article begins by exploring the efforts of African women’s movements from the 1990s onward to end violent civil conflicts and to insist on guarantees of gender equity in newly formed governments. It attempts to explain these recent successes first by examining the complex relationships between international women’s movements and African women’s groups from the Second World War onward, particularly from the era of the U.N. Decade for Women beginning in 1975. The article then turns to a broader problem: exploring the connections between contemporary women’s activism and deeper currents in African history that link the precolonial period with the more recent past. By examining a variety of twentieth-century women’s protests, it argues that cloaked in the language of political, economic, and environmental grievances, these movements also reflect a hidden history of women’s influence as public healers, empowered not only to cure individuals, but also to mend broader relationships in the community.

The Place of Women in Higher Education: A Philosophical-Historical Perspective

The assumption that higher education institutions on the African continent, after gaining political independence from the erstwhile colonisers, would be accessible to all people, irrespective of gender, race, status, ethnicity or religion has not had meaningful practical consequences. In higher education, especially universities, there has not been convincingly adequate space created for women and hence their involvement remains at the periphery of its practices. In this theoretical paper, we argue that although women are involved in the current higher education, their participation is still placed at the margin of the educational practices just like in the pre-colonial and colonial periods. We posit that while the time and space have changed, the nature of involvement throughout the pre-colonial, colonial and post-colonial epochs, women have been and are still left at the periphery of higher education on the African continent. It is our case that if authentic liberation for all is to be realised, the involvement of all people, including women as equal agents in higher education, ought to be the epicentre of all higher education goals and practices. This philosophical paper therefore interrogates and presents a historical expose of Higher Education (HE) in Africa, from pre-colonial, colonial through to the post-colonial epochs, in relation to how they place women within university institutional and educational practices. DOI: 10.5901/mjss.2014.v5n23p2168

Heteroglossia in Chinua Achebe's Things Fall Apart

Things Fall Apart, Chinua Achebe’s first African novel, is a story about the traditional Igbo life in the pre-colonial period. It is often seen as an African national epic by literary critics because of its characterization of a bellicose hero, Okonkwo. These critics pay attention to the unitary epic viewpoint represented by the hero but ignore the diverse opposing viewpoints in the Igbo society of Umuofia. Hence, this paper aims to represent the double-voiced discourses in the novel by adopting M. M. Bakhtin’s theory of heteroglossia. Bakhtin’s four fundamental forms for incorporating heteroglossia in the novel are utilized to reveal the double-voiced discourses, the voices of the masculine and feminine traditions, in the languages of the novel.

Ellen J. Amster, Medicine and the Saints: Science, Islam, and the Colonial Encounter in Morocco, 1877-1956

Amster’s book is an original and well-documented social history of medicine in Morocco during the precolonial and colonial periods. While approaching embodiment as a historical and social process, a method inspired by Foucault’s biopolitics, the author simultaneously shows the limitation of the power/knowledge Foucauldian approach when applied to colonial medicine in Morocco. The author illustrates how the medical encounter, in this particular context, is less a hegemonic inscription of disci...

Darfur Crisis of 2003: Analysis of the Darfur Conflict from the Times of First Clashes to the Present Day

ABSTRACT The present article discusses the conflict in the Darfur region that took place in 2003. Main aim consists inanalyzing of major Darfur conflict emphasizing historical events preceded it. The crucial question raised here is what were significant causalities that affected the emergence of terror? The paper deals with the origin and evolution of tension and violence in Darfur. It observes growth of violation throughout history from the precolonial period to the present day. Emphasis is placed on the root causes of the Darfur crisis of 2003, its participants and characteristic aspects of this war.

The Legacy of Historical Conflict: Evidence from Africa

This article exploits variation between and within countries to examine the legacy of recorded conflicts in Africa in the precolonial period between 1400 and 1700. There are three main findings. First, we show that historical conflict is correlated with a greater prevalence of postcolonial conflict. Second, historical conflict is correlated with lower levels of trust, a stronger sense of ethnic identity, and a weaker sense of national identity across countries. Third, historical conflict is negatively correlated with subsequent patterns of development looking at the pattern across grid cells within countries.

Insights from paleomicrobiology into the indigenous peoples of pre-colonial America - A Review

This review investigates ancient infectious diseases in the Americas dated to the pre-colonial period and considers what these findings can tell us about the history of the indigenous peoples of the Americas. It gives an overview, but focuses on four microbial pathogens from this period: Helicobacter pylori, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Trypanosoma cruzi and Coccidioides immitis, which cause stomach ulceration and gastric cancer, tuberculosis, Chagas disease and valley fever, respectively. These pathogens were selected as H. pylori can give insight into ancient human migrations into the Americas, M. tuberculosis is associated with population density and urban development, T. cruzi can elucidate human living conditions and C. immitis can indicate agricultural development. A range of methods are used to diagnose infectious disease in ancient human remains, with DNA analysis by polymerase chain reaction one of the most reliable, provided strict precautions are taken against cross contamination. The review concludes with a brief summary of the changes that took place after European exploration and colonisation.

The Development of Water Management Institutions and the Provision for Water Delivery in Cameroon: History and Futures<sup>16</sup>

This paper examines past scenarios and future prospects for the development of water management institutions and provisions for water delivery in Cameroon. The major aim of the paper is to reconstruct the history of water management that led to the current water delivery system in Cameroon using the exploratory approach of data analysis supported with diagrams. As a result, data obtained from personal observation and secondary sources were used to capture the objectives of the inquiry. The paper observed that despite the classification of Cameroon as a water surplus country; the country’s 18 million inhabitants confront the hardships from day to day and experience a low level of standard of living. This is due to the piecemeal occurrence of water development process over time from pre-colonial period to present. The non-existence of proper water policy and water law in the presence of water structures that are not properly developed in a young democracy have, thus, reinforced the situation of poor provisioning of water in the country. Consequently, the paper concludes that the poor provisioning of water in Cameroon is attributed to the lack of development of water management institutions and structures; it suggests a set of broad guidelines for developing water institutions.KEY WORDS: Water management, water institutions, water delivery, policy, Cameroon

Land as a Human Right: A History of Land Law and Practice in Tanzania. Abdon Rwegasira. Dar es Salaam, Mkuki na Nyota, 2012. xxv + 412 pp. Paperback £34.95, ISBN 978-9987-08-152-3

in any other country in the world, the History of Land Law in Tanzania, especially, has been evolving along the axis of So Advocate Rwegasira contends in this important contribution to Tanzanian land law scholarship. As a book intended primarily for university law students, the author presents an historical analysis of land law in Tanzania from the pre-colonial period to the present, with detailed discussion of land law principles and precedent. However, this book stands apart from the conventional historical or black letter land law textbook. Drawing upon the works of established Tanzanian land law and rights scholars, the author conceptualises the history of land law in Tanzania as a history of struggles between the landed and landless over competing land rights. This leads him to adopt his own human rights to the study of Tanzanian land law. His approach reflects upon this history of landed struggles and considers the ways in which rights principles have been interpreted in seminal cases involving the landless or marginalised. He further analyses key developments in Tanzanian law where rights and accompanying duties have been enshrined to protect the land rights of vulnerable social groups.

The Contribution of African Women to Economic Growth and Development in the Pre-Colonial and Colonial Periods: Historical Perspectives and Policy Implications

ABSTRACTBringing together history and economics, this paper presents a historical and processual understanding of women's economic marginalization in sub-Saharan Africa from the pre-colonial period to the end of colonial rule. It is not that women have not been economically active or productive; it is rather that they have often not been able to claim the proceeds of their labor or have it formally accounted for. The paper focuses on the pre-colonial and colonial periods and outlines three major arguments. First, it discusses the historical processes through which the labor of women was increasingly appropriated even in kinship structures in pre-colonial Africa, utilizing the concepts of “rights in persons” and “wealth in people”. Reviewing the processes of production and reproduction, it explains why most slaves in pre-colonial Africa were women and discusses how slavery and slave trade intensified the exploitation of women. Second, it analyzes how the cultivation of cash crops and European missionary constructions of the individual, marriage, and family from the early decades of the 19th century sequestered female labor and made it invisible in the realm of domestic production. Third, it discusses how colonial policies from the late 19th century reinforced the “capture” of female labor and the codification of patriarchy through the nature and operation of the colonial economy and the instrumentality of customary law.

Education as a Spiritual Journey: The Hidden Story behind the Evolution and Growth of Starehe Boys Centre and School, Kenya

In the last few decades we have witnessed a surge in western scholarship in areas of spirituality and education and the unabated debates pertaining to the same. The theoretical and dogmatic wars of whether to teach or not teach “creation theory” or “evolution theory” in the West especially US has been part of these unrelenting debates. Proponents of the need to make the education process spirit-centered underscore that “we are in a spiritual renaissance” or “global awakening” and many people globally are increasingly embracing sacredness and interconnectedness of life. Although the global West has witnessed the dubious dichotomy between spirituality and educational both in terms of theory and praxis, the global South and Africa in particular both its pre-colonial, colonial and post-colonial periods has eschewed this ambivalence and synergy between education and spirituality and all research indicators attest the high reverence that has been given to spirituality within the education enterprise in both public and private schools. An African approach to all spheres of life has been spiritual and affirmation of Mbiti (1969) description of an African society as being “notoriously religious”. African deep and virile religiosity was one of the few spheres of African societies that was resilient to the forces of the new order that came with the introduction of Western education and Christianity. It is this religious re-conceptualization that has made both Christianity and Islam to grow beyond measure on the African continent for centuries compared to the global West. / The story of the role of missionaries in the development of education in Africa and its efforts to make education a religious undertaking, its contradictions and mixed effects is well documented and researched and is a subject I will not delve into in this paper. What is absent in the literature however, is the embrace of the same by many private schools that were begun by individuals and not churches in post-independence Africa. This paper sets to discuss the latter by critically examining the hidden story behind the evolution and growth of Starehe Boys Centre and School in Kenya and the centrality of spirituality in its unique evolution, mission and rapid development. Specifically, it examines: growing literature on spirituality and education; the evolution and role of spirituality in the growth of Starehe Boys and Centre and School and emerging reflective educational possibilities. / /

Female Infanticide in 19th-Century India: A Genocide?

In post-colonial India the female foeticide, a practice evolved from customary female infanticide of pre-colonial and colonial period, committed though in separate incidents, has made it almost a unified wave of mass murder. It does not fulfil the widely accepted existing definition of genocide but the high rate of abortion of legitimate girl-foetus by Indian parents makes their crime a kind of group killing or genocide. The female foeticide in post-colonial India is not a modern phenomenon but was also prevalent in pre-colonial India since antiquity as female infanticide and the custom continued in the 19th century in many communities of colonial India, documentation of which are widely available in various archives. In spite of the Act of 1870 passed by the Colonial Government to suppress the practice, treating it a murder and punishing the perpetrators of the crime with sentence of death or transportation for life, the crime of murdering their girl children did not stop. During a period of five to ten years after the promulgation of the Act around 333 cases of female infanticide were tried and 16 mothers were sentenced to death, 133 to transportation for life and others for various terms of rigorous imprisonment in colonial India excluding British Burma and Assam where no such crime was reported. The present paper, on the basis of unpublished proceedings and files of Judicial and Criminal department of nineteenth century and published documents, presents a critical discussion on consideration of such unified wave of customary criminality as a sexually selective genocide, its concepts and location of female infanticide in selective areas dominated by specific patriarchal ethos of Hinduism alone, the religious and economic causes behind formation of a historically reliant peculiar Indian mind set, its nineteenth century encounter with legislative measures of astounded colonial state still responsible for continuation of such criminality in more sophisticated way with the help of modern technology, and historically reliant patriarchal mind set of post-colonial Indian state.

A potentially dystrophic era: Analysing the lyrical sociology of selected sungura songs in Zimbabwe in the 1990s and beyond

This article provides an exegesis of selected sungura songs sung in the 1990s and beyond by some of Zimbabwe's renowned musicians. Sungura is a Swahili word for rabbit. The word has become so naturalised in Shona to the extent that it now refers to a popular music genre sung mainly in indigenous languages. The beat is fast and furious and with a lot of emphasis on the footwork. The 1990s mark the incubation of new nation-state politics in which the subaltern overtly registers protestations against pauperising state policies. These protestations eventually explode in 1997 and intensify at the turn of the century, clearly marking ‘a paradigmatic rupture’ and solidifying the separation of the state from the citizens (Ndlovu-Gatsheni). As a result, sungura musicians operationalise art in expressing a national identity characterised by a brand of politics and economics triggering mass dystopia and dystrophy. Remarkably, these direct protests coincide with critical discourses coming from different literary artists and scholars, who also begin to articulate revisionist discourses that indict the nationalist ideologies. Among them are novels such as Pawns (1992), Echoing Silences (1997) and Mapenzi (1999). In the post-2000 era, there are numerous publications that begin to deconstruct the nationalist ideology with its penchant for heroism and unparalleled political and historical greatness. Among them are the Zimbabwe Women Writers authored Women of Resilience: The voices of women ex-combatants, Fay Chung's Re-living the Second Chimurenga: Memories from Zimbabwe's liberation struggle), Raftopoulos and Mlambo's Becoming Zimbabwe: A history from the pre-colonial period to 2008 and Edgar Tekere's A lifetime of struggle (2007).

Women and Their Role in the Economy of Pre-Colonial Ilorin , Northern Nigeria

The state structure of most pre-colonial African societies relied heavily on the economy which had various components. Women’s role was indeed critical to the proper functioning of such components. The emirate setting to which Ilorin became sub-summed as from the early 19 th century was originally designed by the Caliphate leaders to restrict women’s level of economic participation. This notwithstanding, the pre-emirate Yoruba political and economic background of Ilorin where the women folk played important roles in the process of economic relations seemed to have pre-dominated in Ilorin emirate during the 19 th century. Based on this premise, this study evaluates the economic peculiarities of Ilorin during the pre-colonial period and the extent to which the women were involved in the promotion of economic growth. By using both primary and secondary sources, the paper argues that unlike the situation that obtained in some emirates within the Sokoto Caliphate where women were kept off the stage in terms of economic activities, the Ilorin women during the pre-colonial period were actively involved in pottery, trade and commerce, cheese production, weaving and embroidery works, blacksmithing industry, bead-making, agriculture and craftworks, etc. The Ilorin women established dominance in a wide range of economic activities that enhanced the sustenance of Ilorin before British conquest. As the efforts of Ilorin women were to compliment that of the men which gave Ilorin economy the strength to support the emirate’s expansionist programmes and its elaborate administration, the study concludes that women’s role was central to the economy of Ilorin during the pre-colonial period.

Jacques Jerome Maquet 1919–2013

Jacques Maquet was one of the greatest anthropologists of his generation, a loyal Belgian with much of the deliberateness, precision, and detachment associated with the literary genius of Agatha Christie’s Hercule Poirot. He made an indelible mark on African Studies. His writing and teaching has had a particular significance for scholars of African art in many spheres, including aesthetic anthropology, ethnography, museum studies, the introduction of Africa to a 1960s audience of scholars eager to know about Africa, and finally in the relevance of his findings to many other disciplines. Born in 1919, educated in Louvain in Belgium, the Sorbonne, and London, he continued throughout his life to be a force in both the Francophone and While some may contend that LACMA’s African art program has been a long time coming, there are advantages to starting from a virtually clean slate. First, what the term “arts of Africa” means today is increasingly complex, enabling dialogue about how one might integrate the historical with the contemporary, or work in tandem with curators of film, photography, textiles, and contemporary art. LACMA’s curatorial resources are rich and forward-looking, and there are opportunities for bridging formerly separate areas of interest and expertise. Questions have long arisen in comprehensive museums about which departments should collect and display contemporary arts by artists of African heritage. At LACMA, these questions are answered within exhibitionary contexts. For example, while there are often works on view by artists of African descent in LACMA’s Broad Contemporary Art Museum, there is also a contemporary installation in the Arts of Africa Gallery to promote dialogue with historical works on loan. Building networks across departmental divisions is part of a new landscape of meaning and memory at LACMA, as it is at a number of museums worldwide in the twenty-first century. Secondly, what do we want from a collection? And what is the place of ownership in today’s museum culture? The freedom to conceptualize exhibitions based on borrowed works stimulates a vast range of ideas and possibilities for display themes. Even as we build a first-rate collection carefully and thoughtfully in years to come, changing exhibitions will be enriched by loans and especially by collaborations with other institutions. For example, in 2008 I curated “Tradition as Innovation in African Art” in LACMA’s Ahmanson rotational gallery in partnership with the Fowler Museum at UCLA, where I was then affiliated. Half the works on view were from the Fowler’s rich collections, and an outcome was joint acquisition by LACMA and the Fowler of El Anatsui’s Fading Scroll. Likewise, the inaugural exhibition of the Arts of Africa Gallery, “Shaping Power,” reflects an institutional collaboration with the Royal Museum for Central Africa in Tervuren, Belgium. As it closes for a multiyear renovation, the RMCA is gaining exposure in Southern California while LACMA audiences benefit from the opportunity to behold these outstanding works that have rarely been lent before.3 Such partnerships can extend to African museums and to institutions throughout the world. Starting from a fresh slate has tremendous advantages, then, to imagine how collaboration can lead to potentially paradigm-shifting perspectives. In keeping with LACMA’s inexorably changing memory-scapes, “Shaping Power,” cocurated with the RMCA’s Anne-Marie Bouttiaux, explores the critical roles Luba royal emblems played in the formation and expansion of the Luba kingdom in the precolonial period.4 What these objects may have meant to those who made and used them and how they serve to stimulate remembrance is explained to visitors through a series of themes: the making of a ruler, the role of women, and the power of objects to effect transformation. A complementary video called Thinking with Our Hearts, produced by Agnes Stauber features Mutombo Nkulu-N’Sengha, a Religious Studies professor at Cal State Northridge who is a member of a Luba royal family. A contemporary installation entitled Congo: Shadow of the Shadow (2005) by the Luba artist Aime Mpane borrowed from the Smithsonian Institution’s National Museum of African Art dialogues with the reshaping of memory instigated by the exhibition’s sculptures. A shadow is projected by a male figure formed from 4,652 matchsticks, expressing the paradoxes of human fragility and strength as a gripping commentary about how power has been re-configured from King Leopold’s day through present-day strife in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The resilience and courage of Congolese people are expressed by Mpane’s installation, as memories are continually remade in the DRC and by visitors to LACMA as an ever-transforming theater of memory.

HISTORY - Andrew Burton and Hélène Charton-Bigot, eds. Generations Past: Youth in East African History.Athens: Ohio University Press, 2010. vii + 301pp. Maps. Contributors. Index. $29.95. Paper.

HISTORY Andrew Burton and Helene Charton-Bigot, eds. Generations Past: Youth in East African History. Athens: Ohio University Press, 2010. vii + 301 pp. Maps. Contributors. Index. $29.95. Paper.Originating at Kenyan conference in 2006, this collection examines youth and generation in East Africa (i.e., Kenya, Uganda, and Tanzania) in historical perspective with nuanced insights drawn from anthropology. A well-argued introduction by Andrew Burton and Thomas Burgess leads to twelve chapters mostly by leading social historians trained in North American and British universities, whose seminal research is reflected here. Although these scholars have tackled some of the topics elsewhere, they are indeed essential to the volume's cumulative argument. One co-editor, who contributed chapter, is French historian; only two contributors-in literature and in religious studies-are from East Africa (Kenya).Drawing on extensive evidence (secondary works, state and missionary archives, oral sources, pamphlets, explorers' accounts, Swahili and English newspapers), the collection concentrates primarily on the twentieth century, with the first two chapters examining the precolonial period. This asymmetry might be explained by the lacunae of extant sources and by the scant studies of the earlier period, or it may stem from the book's thesis that colonialism engendered unprecedented tensions in generational relations in Africa, when adulthood had to be negotiated in new ways.The introduction sets the book's intellectual agenda in three key themes: the deep socioeconomic and political changes of the nineteenth century; the attempts by elders, colonial officials (often overlapping), and postcolonial authorities to control youth over the longue duree (18); and the methodology of studying youth and generation in Africa-is youth primary or secondary identity? is it homogeneous term? Although hardly straightforward and unproblematically defined grouping, youth is seen to be discrete social category that emerged mostly in the twentieth century. Besides being culturally specific, the notion of youth varies depending on the historical circumstances: when society experiences social crisis, new ideas of childhood and adolescence emerge.The shifting category of generation-which scholars should examine because it matters in African cultures-has long governed relations in the continent, where it has served to explain social and regulate customs (19). Gerontocracy and patriarchy served to maintain social order in Africa, where complex systems of obligations, submission, and sacrifice were used by seniors to exercise control over social subordinates. Although local differences make generalizations difficult, it is largely true that marriage in most agrarian societies afforded young man social advancement through access to women and reproduction. Generational tensions, then, resulted from changing expectations among youth regarding their obligations and responsibilities (18).Seen as marking turning point in relations between youth and elders, colonialism had significant repercussions for local ways of thinking about the generations. And yet colonialism notwithstanding, considerable continuities with the past and the resilience of local modes of thought persisted, particularly in rural areas where youth remained largely dependent on and deferential to elders.In the first chapter, Richard Reid shows that in the interlacustrine regions of Uganda and northern Tanzania the institutionalized exercise of violence and participation in war-often a young man's game- marked key moments of transition to adulthood amid the rapid changes of the nineteenth century. Across the region aggressive male youth were revolutionaries hubristically challenging the status quo, but without completely rejecting the existing social structure. Their recruitment of boys-at once victims and perpetrators of violence-is reminiscent of the seemingly recent phenomenon of child soldiers. …