Matti Häyry has argued that space exploration aimed at human settlement is both irrational and morally impermissible. Such projects, he claims, expose others-including future generations-to serious risks that were not autonomously chosen and which may be harsh, oppressive, and difficult or impossible to escape. Given the increasing institutional interest in extra-planetary habitation, these concerns warrant serious engagement. This paper refutes Häyry's use of the precautionary principle as a decisive moral rule in this context because the principle is ill-suited to long-term, future-directed activities in that it treats abstention as ethically neutral. The moral failure of human settlement in space, if there is one, lies not in space exploration qua activity-but in mission frameworks that exclude normative, social, and philosophical perspectives from their design and governance.

This essay explores the potential for biodiversity litigation in Iran, where biodiversity loss has become a serious concern. Article 50 of the Iranian Constitution emphasises the need for environmental protection, yet most environmental cases are adjudicated by the Administrative Court of Justice, ignoring the precautionary principle. The paper examines the legal foundation for such claims under Article 10 of the Court’s legislation and compares Iran’s approach with the more efficient legal framework of the European Union. The objective is to enhance the efficacy of biodiversity litigation in Iran.

The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species is a critical measure of global aquatic and terrestrial biodiversity status. It is also the basis for the Red List Index, which tracks extinction risk over time. Sharks, rays, and chimaeras (Chondrichthyes) have now been comprehensively assessed twice (1996-2011 and 2012-2021) with hindcast assessments from 1970 onward, yielding an unprecedented extinction risk trajectory for an aquatic vertebrate class. The three-decade success of the IUCN Species Survival Commission (SSC) Shark Specialist Group (SSG) in providing updated and evidence-based assessments stems from sustained and coordinated activities by SSG members. We examined how a community of dedicated experts organized to fill gaps in key information to inform Red List assessments. From this evaluation, we identified six key lessons related to membership, taxonomic changes, implementation of the precautionary approach, information prioritization, assessment standardization, and policy efforts. However, existing challenges, including resource constraints and assessment discrepancies at different spatial scales, need to be addressed to ensure Red List assessments stay on pace with advances in conservation. With the second global assessment of chondrichthyans completed, it is appropriate to reflect on the evolution of the SSG and its achievements over three decades to highlight new tools and approaches to red listing and to identify priorities for the immediate future that are also applicable to other aquatic taxa with limited data, slow life histories, and exposure to high levels of fishing.

Modern society needs to be vigilant and respond promptly to risks.The emergence of uncertainties not only may increase the probability of risks occurring but also may exacerbate their severity.Therefore, what ethical principle should be relied on to deal with risks characterized by uncertainty has become a problem to be solved.The precautionary principle is an important ethical principle for addressing and resolving risks with uncertain features.This article aims to explain the changes of the precautionary principle in risk governance from its origin, the expansion of its geographical scope, and the increase in its application fields; and focuses on demonstrating the continuous improvement of the precautionary principle in risk governance through the transformation from the weak precautionary principle governance model with limited effectiveness to the strong precautionary principle governance model with high effectiveness.

On “better research”, legitimacy, transparency and the precautionary principle in conservation biology: Reply to (Randi et al., 2026)

Minimising exposure to endocrine disruptors (EDs) is a priority within the European Union's political agenda. These chemical substances interfere with the endocrine system, leading to adverse effects on human health and the environment. Despite extensive research, significant uncertainties remain regarding safe levels of exposure to EDs. This paper highlights the need for cautious risk assessment due to substantial knowledge gaps, limitations in testing and unresolved questions about thresholds, non-monotonic dose-responses and low-dose effects. On this basis, we recommend a precautionary approach to risk assessment of EDs and in general support initiatives to reduce exposure by phasing out use and production. In cases where EDs are found in for instance food and drinking water, we propose the use of an additional uncertainty factor of 10 (as default) for the nature of ED effects to ensure more protective risk assessments. Our recommendations aim to contribute to the ongoing discussion on how to effectively manage the risks associated with endocrine disruptors. • There is a growing need for risk assessment of endocrine disruptors (EDs) • Significant uncertainties remain in deriving safe levels of exposure to EDs • Uncertainties include major knowledge gaps, testing limitations, questions around thresholds, and potential for non-monotonic and low-dose effects • Applying an additional uncertainty factor of 10 for ED effects is recommended as a pragmatic precautionary approach

Primary prevention includes interventions that prevent the initial occurrence of disease; in the context of pandemic origins, one class of primary preventative interventions involves reducing the risk of zoonotic pathogen spillover. Pandemics are rare events, therefore data on spillover events of known pandemic pathogens are also rare. In contrast, many zoonotic viruses spill over frequently but fail to spread efficiently between humans. We consider whether insights from frequent spillovers of poorly-spreading viruses should be used to inform primary prevention strategies aimed at viruses that spill over rarely but spread well human-to-human. We propose a set of principles to steer future research and guide deployment of preventative strategies. We believe that a precautionary approach, grounded in evidence from viruses that spill over frequently, offers the most practical empirical foundation for guiding primary spillover prevention.

This study examines the public health and cancer prevention implications of the rapid proliferation of electronic nicotine delivery systems (ENDS) in South Korea, and discusses regulatory strategies grounded in empirical evidence. Drawing on domestic and international literature, and national statistical data, the analysis synthesizes evidence on ENDS product characteristics, patterns of use, associated health risks, potential effectiveness for smoking cessation, and indicators of nicotine dependence. A comparative policy analysis further situates Korea's tobacco control framework within the broader landscape of regulatory approaches adopted in other high-income countries. Although ENDS eliminate combustion and may reduce exposure to certain carcinogens, their expanding use raises substantial public health concerns particularly with respect to youth nicotine initiation, dual use with combustible cigarettes, and uncertain long-term health effects. While some evidence suggests a possible role for ENDS in smoking cessation, the overall scientific evidence remains mixed, and robust longitudinal data are limited. Regulatory responses to ENDS vary widely across countries, with South Korea maintaining a relatively cautious regulatory stance. In light of the evolving evidence base and emerging population-level risks, a comprehensive and precautionary regulatory approach is warranted with particular emphasis on protecting adolescents, ensuring product safety, and reinforcing norms that support tobacco cessation.

• PLAY+ links active outdoor play with human-animal-environmental health. • Framework built using scoping review, conceptual mapping, and expert consultations. • Active outdoor play connects climate, human-animal bonds, and stewardship. • Most policies neglect active outdoor play's role in One Health–gap remains. • PLAY+ should be further refined and validated given its predominantly anthropocentric grounding. There has been growing recognition of the interconnections between human health, environmental sustainability, and ecosystem resilience. Positioning active outdoor play as a potential catalyst and ally in advancing human, animal, and environmental health, this study developed and validated a framework linking active outdoor play and One Health. The framework development followed a structured, multi-step process incorporating a scoping review, conceptual mapping, and expert consultations. Based on the results of the scoping review, a conceptual mapping exercise was undertaken to visually represent the interconnections between active outdoor play and One Health, which was then validated by key informants ( n = 16) selected based on their expertise and leadership in the relevant topic areas. A total of 23 scholarly articles addressed the potential interconnectedness of active outdoor play, human-animal relationships, and environmental responsibility. Three themes emerged: 1) outdoor play environments and climate resilience ( n = 6), 2) human-animal interactions and public health ( n = 10), and 3) environmental stewardship and responsibility toward planetary health ( n = 7). Nine policy documents were identified, of which eight did not make direct references to active outdoor play. Informed by the evidence, the PLAY+ (Play, Land, Animals, You and +) framework was created. Insights from an expert survey further refined the framework. While the framework highlights the interconnected benefits of active outdoor play across human, animal and environmental health domains, it is equally important to recognize associated risks and unintended consequences. As such, the framework should be views as conceptual, heuristic tool that encourages precautionary approaches, continued empricial evaluation, and context-sensitive implementation.

Micro- and nanoplastics (MNPs) are becoming a significant public health concern, with growing evidence of widespread human exposure in South and Southeast Asia through food, drinking water, air, and occupational settings. Nanoplastics, in particular, represent an under-recognized fraction with distinct exposure pathways and biological relevance. Although causal pathways are not fully established, the consistency of regional exposure patterns and emerging toxicological evidence warrant policy attention. In this region, rapid plastic production, high levels of mismanaged waste, large informal recycling sectors, and climate-exposed riverine and coastal systems create complex and overlapping exposure pathways. These conditions disproportionately affect vulnerable populations, including children, pregnant women, informal workers, and coastal communities. Key findings indicate that MNP exposure is widespread, poorly monitored, and inadequately addressed by policies that focus mainly on macroplastic waste management rather than health protection. Current regulatory frameworks rarely distinguish between microplastics and nanoplastics, even though their behavior, detection, and toxicity differ. This review identifies fragmented governance and weak integration across environmental regulation, food safety, occupational health, and public health systems as key policy gaps. Lessons from air pollution, lead, and other environmental hazards highlight the risks of delaying action. Priority policy directions include applying the precautionary principle, strengthening integrated surveillance and biomonitoring, regulating upstream plastic sources, and protecting high-risk populations. Ministries of Health should integrate MNP exposure into surveillance systems, occupational health frameworks, and maternal and child health programs.

ABSTRACT The Paris Agreement set a goal to keep global warming to well below 2°C temperature rise above pre-industrial levels and pursue efforts to limit the rise in global surface temperature to 1.5°C. Achieving these targets hinges on reaching net-zero emissions, where residual anthropogenic emissions are counterbalanced by carbon dioxide removal (CDR). Using oceans for CDR holds great potential but also poses scientific challenges and societal concerns around the risks involved in marine geoengineering interventions. Furthermore, the regulatory context framing ocean interventions is hard to navigate as it involves complex and variable international law. The question of whether to deploy marine CDR (mCDR) therefore requires clear signals from regulatory frameworks worldwide. This paper reviews mCDR-related regulatory texts and policy documents from the United States, the European Union, and the United Nations. We categorize the texts based on whether they provide incentives or restrictions to deployment, and which stage of technology development they target, i.e. research, innovation, pilots, demand, or market instruments. The controversies surrounding mCDR are reflected in the stark contrasts between regulatory approaches: the US mostly provides regulatory incentives whereas the EU creates regulatory frameworks that do not send clear signals, and most UN treaties work to restrict the deployment of mCDR. These contrasting policy approaches are rooted in scientific uncertainty, but the issue of whether or not to deploy these controversial interventions is also a political one. A policy approach necessarily involves societal decisions, particularly when addressing risks and uncertainties of mCDR and climate change. Key policy insights Contrasting policy signals between the UN, the US and the EU policies show that mCDR is highly controversial. Research is key to reducing uncertainty and informing decisions on mCDR deployment, and almost all regulatory texts in our corpus advocate deep research. The precautionary principle calls for robust mechanisms to guide decisions under uncertainty that have not yet been implemented. Policymakers could provide clearer signals about the level of certainty required to make a decision on whether or not to deploy mCDR.

Isolated Perfusion Chemotherapy (IPC) with balloon occlusion creates transient ischemic tissue compartments while patients remain exposed to significant perioperative heat loss. Active warming during these phases is commonly avoided due to theoretical concerns regarding impaired heat distribution and potential local heat accumulation in ischemic tissue. This study investigated the thermal safety of forced-air warming during IPC under these conditions. In this prospective observational study, 31 patients undergoing IPC were monitored during balloon-induced vascular occlusion. Convective warming was applied using a forced-air system set to 43 °C. Core temperature was measured rectally, and local temperatures were continuously recorded at gluteal, lumbar, and interscapular sites. Temperature trajectories and maximum values during occlusion were analysed descriptively. Local temperature increases during ischemia were limited, with a maximum increase of 2.3 °C at the lumbar site. Absolute temperatures remained well below the predefined safety threshold of 39.5 °C at all skin measurement sites (maximum observed 37.7 °C). Core temperature remained stable throughout the occlusion phase. No evidence of local heat accumulation, threshold exceedance, or thermal skin reactions was observed. Under conditions of controlled application, close temperature monitoring, and short ischemic intervals, forced-air warming during IPC did not result in local overheating or clinically relevant thermal exposure. These findings challenge the prevailing precautionary approach of avoiding active warming during vascular isolation and provide prospective clinical evidence supporting a reassessment of temperature management strategies toward actively maintained normothermia in isolated perfusion chemotherapy.

BackgroundAs patients increasingly consult large language models (LLMs) for health-related information, evaluating the clinical safety of AI-generated responses has become essential, particularly in high-risk domains such as oral oncology. Despite growing interest in AI applications in medicine, evidence regarding response consistency and referral safety in patient communication remains limited. This study aimed to assess the clinical safety of two contemporary LLMs in oral cancer–related patient scenarios using a multidimensional evaluation framework.MethodsThis repeated-prompt observational study evaluated Google Gemini (Pro version) and xAI Grok (Grok-1) over a 7-day period. Twenty standardized Turkish-language patient scenarios related to suspected oral cancer were submitted daily to each model, generating 280 responses. Scientific accuracy and completeness were assessed using a 5-point Likert scale by two independent oral and maxillofacial radiologists. Readability was evaluated using validated Turkish indices (Ateşman and Bezirci–Yılmaz). Referral safety was assessed as a binary outcome. Internal consistency across repeated prompts was measured using Cronbach’s alpha, and inter-model agreement was analyzed using intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC).ResultsBoth models demonstrated comparable levels of scientific accuracy (Gemini: 3.52 ± 0.57; Grok: 3.39 ± 0.68; p = 0.072) and completeness (3.40 ± 0.70 vs. 3.25 ± 0.78; p = 0.091). Overall referral safety was high (Gemini: 90.0%; Grok: 92.1%), although the Gemini model failed to recommend professional consultation in two high-risk scenarios involving suspected malignancy. In contrast, Grok consistently recommended referral across all scenarios. Readability scores were similar between models; however, Grok generated significantly longer sentences (p = 0.0005; Cohen’s d = 2.50), indicating increased linguistic complexity. Internal consistency was high for both models (Gemini α = 0.942; Grok α = 0.886), whereas inter-model agreement was moderate (ICC: 0.50–0.58).ConclusionsContemporary LLMs demonstrate generally acceptable accuracy and a precautionary approach in oral cancer–related communication. However, variability in referral behavior and linguistic structure, along with occasional under-referral in high-risk scenarios, highlights potential clinical risks. While these systems may support patient education and triage, they should be considered adjunctive tools and not substitutes for professional evaluation. Further research is needed to optimize the balance between clinical caution and appropriate guidance in AI-assisted healthcare communication.

This article provides the philosophical grounds for the Protective Precautionary Principle (PPP). This principle prioritizes protecting disadvantaged populations from the risks posed by new technologies, such as human heritable genome editing. I argue that the Protective Precautionary Principle is better suited for morally assessing applications of heritable genome editing than other formulations of the Precautionary Principle, including the Reasonable Precautionary Principle, the Rawlsian Core Precautionary Principle, and the Sufficientarian Precautionary Principle. The Protective Precautionary Principle permits heritable genome editing research only if it reflects a commitment to epistemic humility. Moreover, such research must avoid imposing significant risks on vulnerable populations unless substantial measures are in place to mitigate potential harms.

Dual use research of concern (DURC) refers to research conducted for legitimate scientific purposes that could also be misused to pose a significant threat to public health and safety, agricultural crops and other plants, animals, the environment, or national security. Scant discussion of bioethics in relation to DURC has taken place, with even less attention to DURC within a global bioethics framework. Herein, we demonstrate the connections of global bioethics-due to globalization, solidarity and cooperation, the precautionary principle, and collective consent-to DURC and present a number of questions that the field can help clarify.

This study examines the development of climate litigation in Indonesia and its implications for the justiciability of the right to a clean and healthy environment. Using a normative legal approach, the research analyzes constitutional provisions, statutory regulations, and judicial decisions to evaluate how Indonesian courts interpret and enforce environmental rights in the context of climate change. The study finds that although the right to a clean and healthy environment is explicitly recognized in Article 28H(1) of the Constitution of the Republic of Indonesia 1945 and further supported by environmental legislation, its judicial enforcement remains inconsistent. Key challenges include limitations in legal standing, difficulties in establishing causation, and judicial reluctance to intervene in policy-related matters. Nevertheless, emerging judicial trends indicate a gradual shift toward more progressive interpretations, including the application of precautionary principles and broader recognition of environmental harm. This study concludes that strengthening legal frameworks, enhancing judicial capacity, and integrating climate-specific norms are essential to improving the enforceability of environmental rights. The findings contribute to the discourse on environmental constitutionalism and climate justice, particularly in developing country contexts.

This article provides a comprehensive and critical analysis of the profound regulatory asymmetries in pesticide governance between the European Union (EU) and the Global South, with a specific focus on Brazil and India. It deconstructs the paradoxical phenomenon where pesticides deemed too hazardous for European soil, due to their unacceptable risks to human health and biodiversity, are systematically produced within the EU and exported to developing nations. This practice, conceptualized here as "toxic colonialism" and "chemical dumping," is analyzed through the theoretical lenses of Biopolitics, Environmental Justice, and the Capitalocene. By synthesizing regulatory data from the last decade (2016-2026), this study reveals stark discrepancies in Maximum Residue Limits (MRLs) and drinking water standards, where permissible levels in the Global South can be thousands of times higher than those in the EU. The analysis further explores the socio-epidemiological impacts on vulnerable populations, arguing that these asymmetries represent a form of structural violence and a systemic violation of human rights. The article concludes by advocating for a decolonial approach to chemical regulation, the closure of the "export loophole," and the global harmonization of ethical standards based on the precautionary principle. This work contributes to the burgeoning field of political ecology by highlighting the racialized and geopolitical dimensions of environmental health inequities in the 21st century.

Abstract Loss and Damage (L&D) due to climate change from human activity is now an accepted scientific fact. After years of collecting data, analysing samples and changes overtime, writing reports, applying various models and developing theories, the agreement to take action and provide funding for L&D to vulnerable countries was finally agreed to at the United Nations Conference of Parties 27 (COP) on 20 November 2022. The question needs to be asked why did this take so long? And was it absolutely necessary to wait for the conclusive proof about L&D? Echoes of the ignored precautionary principle from International Law come to mind as sadly, vulnerable countries, already experiencing the most serious impacts of climate change, are left to adapt and mitigate the harsh effects hitting their shores. Audrey Brown-Pereira’s poem “They Taking pictures of us in the water” paints the real-life experiences faced by vulnerable countries, who, are ‘leading the charge of [their] own self rescue.” This paper seeks to provide a complete background of the topic of climate change loss and damage (CCLD), tracing its conceptual development overtime from 1824–2025 and into the future. It analyses what happened over these four epochs and explores how justice has developed in these epochs. To understand CCLD there is a need to analyse its historical evolution as that can provide the platform for improved impact. The originality of this research centres on being the first to explore with a justice lens the full emergence of CCLD overtime.

Many marine species depend on nurseries during early life stages to promote growth and increase survival to maturity, supporting stock replenishment and stability. Since the nursery was first formally defined 25 years ago as a habitat that yields a greater-than-average contribution of juvenile recruits to an adult population, researchers have repeatedly revisited the concept and debated the best nursery identification approach to balance both ecological complexity and management practicality. The sustained research interest has produced several alternative frameworks broadly categorizable as production-, persistence-, or connectivity-oriented. However, existing frameworks remain difficult to apply in high-priority and data-poor contexts. While persistence metrics have been applied to site fisheries restricted areas in the Mediterranean, no proposed metrics have been incorporated into U.S. fisheries management plans. To address the definitional ambiguity and research-management disconnect, we review the major topics of nursery literature and synthesize the discourse and research with a decision tree to guide the adaptive designation of four nursery tiers— Candidate , Putative , Confirmed , and Refined Nurseries —where the degree of precaution scales with management urgency, socioeconomic importance, system uncertainty, data availability, population accessibility, research capacity, and species ecology. We then compile potential interventions for each nursery tier and list risk management tools with which they can be paired to support the socioeconomic and political viability of precautious approaches. Finally, we provide three hypothetical examples of the application of this novel tiered approach to nursery management for three shark taxa, considering examples from both biodiversity conservation and fishery sustainability contexts. This approach seeks to bridge the gap between research and management and realign the nursery concept with the core precautionary and adaptive principles of ecosystem-based management.

Type of the article: Research ArticleThe study aims to analyze institutional policies governing the use of generative artificial intelligence (GenAI) in Ukrainian universities and assess their regulatory maturity. Drawing on the authors’ Taxonomy of Institutional AI Policy Maturity (AI-PMT), which comprises twelve analytical dimensions, the study examines a sample of 23 publicly available institutional policy documents adopted between 2023 and 2025. The analysis combines qualitative and quantitative approaches. A directed content analysis was used to assign ordinal scores (0-2) across twelve dimensions, enabling the construction of a cumulative maturity index (0-24) for each institution. The results reveal an uneven distribution of regulatory development, with more elaborated provisions related to teaching and learning, and comparatively less developed components addressing research practices, data governance, and infrastructural support. To synthesize these patterns, an analytical typology of institutions was developed based on cumulative maturity scores, identifying three broad groups that differ in the degree of regulatory completeness and procedural specification. In parallel, thematic analysis of policy content identified recurring patterns, including the normalization of AI use in education, the emphasis on transparency and disclosure, the prevalence of precautionary approaches to data and confidentiality, and several contested provisions. Comparison with international policy frameworks suggests that Ukrainian universities broadly align with global normative trends in principles, but exhibit limited operationalization of governance mechanisms and research-related provisions. The findings highlight structural imbalances in institutional AI governance and underscore the need to further develop research-oriented regulation, institutional support mechanisms, and coordinated policy approaches.Acknowledgment We thank the Armed Forces of Ukraine for providing security for this work, which was made possible only thanks to the resilience and bravery of the Ukrainian Army.