Pre-classical Period Research Articles

Violence trends in the ancient Middle East between 12,000 and 400 BCE.

How did interpersonal violence develop in early human societies? Given that homicide records are only available for the more recent period, much of human history remains outside our purview. In this paper, we study violence trends in the very long run by exploiting a new dataset on cranial trauma and weapon-related wounds from skeletons excavated across the Middle East, spanning the pre-Classical period (around 12,000-400 BCE). The dataset includes more than 3,500 individuals. We find evidence that interpersonal violence peaked during the Chalcolithic period (around 4,500-3,300 BCE). It then steadily declined during the Early and Middle Bronze Ages (around 3,300-1,500 BCE) and increased again between the Late Bronze and the Iron Age (1,500-400 BCE). By documenting variations in violence patterns across a vast temporal and geographical scale in an incredibly rich historical setting, we broaden perspectives on the early history of human conflict.

Precursors and theoretical background of Kant’s philosophy: ontological and metaphysical aspects

The year 2024 will witness the 300th anniversary of Kant, the philosopher, whose works, according to many researchers, began modern philosophy. However, the outstanding achievements of Kant, his “Copernican revolution”, the transcendental method did not appear from scratch. The revolutionary ideas of Kant absorbed the experience of outstanding representatives of antiquity, the Middle Ages, and the New Age. The political and socio-cultural situation in Europe in the 18th century also had a certain impact on the formation of his philosophy. Among the outstanding philosophers of the preclassical period, Plato, Aristotle, Augustine, Thomas Aquinas should be noted. Hobbes, Locke, Newton, Descartes, Spinoza, Leibniz, Hume, Rousseau should be mentioned among the representatives of the New Age. Some of these philosophers influenced his ethical philosophy, which is beyond the scope of this work. It is advisable to consider all the above problems in the context of the coordinate system of the world based on the limiting dynamic equilibria, since Kant raised questions about the boundaries of the sensory sphere, reason, reason, and human freedom. He resolved many of them or outlined approaches to their solution. Kant also claimed to remove the contradictions between empiricism and rationalism – the main epistemological currents of the New Age; however, according to the researchers of his creative heritage, he did not succeed. At the beginning of his philosophical activity, Kant tried to find the ultimate foundations of metaphysics, the value of which Kant constantly emphasizes. He believed that this was necessary in order to elucidate the final foundations of reality. Kant continued the search for ultimate foundations in his “critical philosophy” in aesthetics, analytics, and dialectics. He revealed the boundaries of reason, sense, and free will. He drew the line between the “idea of God” – the “ideal of pure reason” and its actual capabilities.

Conflicts in Roman Land Law in the Era of the Empire

The purpose of this study is to examine agriculture of the Ancient Rome from the point of view of the development of judicial proceedings in this branch. During the period of transition from the Republic to the Empire several systems of land surveying were formed in Rome, which contributed to the improvement of land management. In the centuriation system the categories of land ownership and possession were most clearly defined. The task of this study is to show how in land disputes (controversies) there was a change of the archaic legal procedure to the formulary one, characteristic of the preclassical period. However, it is the analysis of controversies that reveals the peculiarity of Roman agriculture, in which the archaic features in legal proceedings not only persist for a long time but also linger until the classical period of Ius Civile. Such controversies as “de loco”, “de fine”, “de proprietate” were conducted using the archaic verb litigo (including the classical period). But at the same time, in the pre-classical legal proceedings the verb “ago” was introduced into the process. Though the combination of features of the archaic and formulary processes complicated the judicial process in land disputes, nevertheless, it retained all the characteristics of the ancient land law which was also important in the classical period of Ius Civile.

Ответственность услугодателя в классический период римского права

The article is devoted to the responsibility of a service provider in Classical roman law. The author describes the main social and legal factores led to the changes in a service agreement in comparing with its structure in Preclassical period of roman law. Basing on fragments of classical juridical treatises he clarifies tthe responsibility for a breach of the main obligation tied with service providing as well as of the additional one going from caring for a customer’s thing. Exegesis to authentic sources combines with reviewing of traditional interpetations given by modern authors. The curring research showes the intrinsic interconnection between developing of formal legal relationships based on a contract of autonomic parties and rising of responsibility standards of a service provider. The appearing of an independent craftsman is caused by reglamention of the service agreement object. That object is regarded as physical efforts that will applied by a craftsman after certain period of time.

Roots of Ecosystem Services from Economics

The consequence of human action on environmental resources was noticed by ancient thinkers like Plato. Modern concern for natural resources started with the publication of Marsh’s book Man and Nature in 1864 where he pointed out that natural resources are not infinite. Nature always remained at a core position in economic analysis. During pre-classical period, physiocrats believed that nature was the primary source of value. Classical economists like Ricardo, Malthus, Mill, put nature as an important determinant in their theories. But classical economists concentrated only to the use values, neglecting their exchange values. The writings of Marx are also rich in ecological hints. Rise of neoclassical economists brought about a change in economic analysis. Emphasis was shifted from use value to exchange value. By 1930s scope of economic analysis was restricted to the factors that command price. Gradually, natural resources completely disappeared from economic production function. Economists started to believe that natural resources can substituted for manufactured capital. During that period, non-marketed ecosystem services were kept outside the scope of economic analysis. The advent of environmentalists during the second half of 20th century opened the door for non-marketed services to be incorporated in economic analysis. For this purpose, they devised various tools like market value approaches, revealed preference approaches and stated preference approaches. Present paper will give an account of the trend of environmental concern in economic analysis.

PECULIARITIES OF THE SEMANTICS OF “FRIEND” AND “ENEMY”IN ARCHAIC LYRICS: A GENERAL DESCRIPTION

The article provides a general description of the image of friend and enemy in early Greek lyrics. First of all, the author defines the specificity of the key lexemes of the ancient Greek language for the studied concepts, namely φίλος, and ἐχθρὸς, emphasizing their diversity, ambiguity, “untranslatability” and contextuality. This situation is also connected with the presence of a kind of “dictionary” of both friendship and enmity in the language of the ancient Greeks. It is proved that the source of the designation of a person as a “friend/enemy” for the early Greek lyricists was the work of the archaic epic, namely the works of Homer and Hesiod since both epics and lyricists noted that both gods and humans can be friends. At the same time, it is emphasized that the possibility of friendly relations with the transcendent was widespread in the ancient Near Eastern tradition. By examining the works of such early Greek lyricists as Alcmaeon, Anacreon, Bacchylides, Pindar, Sappho, and Theognis, it is proved that the image of a friend is dual, according to the use of one or another lexeme φίλος or ἑταῖρος. Φίλος denoted a friend with whom a person has a spiritual/emotional affinity, although this did not exclude usefulness, while ἑταῖρος determined the relationship between the mundane and everyday. This distinction between friendship and kinship was also due to the reflections of the pre-Socratics, as they contributed to this clarification by arguing that there are conditions for friendship that do not necessarily exist between family and friends. It has been proved that enemies in the context of the works of the lyricists of the pre-classical period of ancient culture exist not only in the relations between people but also between certain mythological characters. The Greek poets of the pre-classical period did not hate the enemy as such only for some atrocities, but it was a mutual feeling. One was not at odds with a person blindly, thoughtlessly, but because of the corresponding (in)action with which this or that person was associated. The image of the enemy has not only a negative meaning, since negative, sometimes even cruel feelings will be felt towards him, but also positive and friendly ones, if he really deserves it.

Классическая сонатная форма: контекст современного музыкально-педагогического опыта

Importance. The range of issues of fortepiano pedagogy related to the development of the classical sonata form in succession with the composing and performing experience of the pre-classical period is considered. The problem of mastering the modern musical and pedagogical experience in the field of studying the classical sonata form in the fortepiano classroom is solved. Materials and methods. The semiotic approach to the musical text is used as the main methodological principle, as well as historical and cultural commentary and reconstruction of the authentic environment in which the classical sonata form was created and developed. The expediency of using the “quasi-score of the performing concept” in pedagogical communication is shown. The justification of the introduced concept contains various examples of reading the urtext. The proposed methods can be widely used in the sequential process of mastering a large form in an instrumental classroom. Results and Discussion. A useful result of the proposed approach is a meaningful attitude to performance technique as a resource for generating variants of the correct author’s interpretation of a work of art. Despite the fact that the large form is an obligatory part of music pedagogy, practicing musicians face problems of formal and semantic perception of the text in the process of participating in the dialogue environment “teacher – student”, “composer – instrumentalist”. By analogy with the term quasi-scores used in the art criticism analysis of a large form, the concept of “quasi-score of the performing concept” is introduced, which allows to enrich pedagogical communication with a large volume of historical and cultural information tied to the artistic text of the work and the technology of its performance. Concrete examples of the mutual influence of the largest representatives of the composer and performing practice of the 18th century are given and interpreted. Conclusion. The idea of the need to develop the ability of an instrumentalist to understand, hear and reproduce in performing practice the constructs of the musical language generated in the syncretism of the compositional and performing practice of the epochs of Johann Kunau, the Bach family, Domenico Scarlatti, Georg Friedrich Handel, Joseph Haydn, Muzio Clementi, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Ludwig van Beethoven is argued.

Charles Reade: Town Planning British Malaya, 1921-1929 by Kamalruddin Shamsudin

Reviewed by: Charles Reade: Town Planning British Malaya, 1921-1929 by Kamalruddin Shamsudin Rosilawati Zainol Charles Reade: Town Planning British Malaya, 1921–1929. By Kamalruddin Shamsudin (KLDIN). Kuala Lumpur: Kamalruddin Shamsudin, 2015, 373 pp. ISBN: 967-12232-0-6 Kamalruddin Shamsudin was the Deputy Director-General of the Federal Town and Country Planning Department of Malaysia (PLAN MALAYSIA) between 2006–2014. He has written and lectured on Charles Reade's seminal contributions to town planning in British Malaya since the 1990s. Charles Reade: Town Planning British Malaya, 1921–1929 highlighted the plight of Charles Reade in promoting urban planning, then still largely a fledgling notion in Malaya. Reade's background and experience were explained in an easy narrative which allows readers to understand the actions taken by Reade in his journey. Town improvement is the primary motive for legalizing town planning in the British colonies. Reade had already seen the worst of cities due to unbridled industrialization in the West when he worked as a journalist in many parts of the world and wished to prevent a similarly haphazard development in Malaya. Reade's predicament was far from easy. The earlier chapters in this book show the struggle he faced to install the physical aspects of the urban planning concept, and to ensure that cooperation between different parties in a municipality could be forged without unnecessary recourse to public funds. His talks in a conference [End Page 134] brought him to notice and had led to Reade's appointment as Government Town Planner in South Australia in 1918. It was the success he enjoyed with thispost in South Australia that enabled him later to lend his expertise to the Federated Malay States (F.M.S.) in 1920. Reade's ideas on town planning were explained in his talks. His talks and exhibitions in Australia and Malaya were well received, at which he described the current town and country planning practices in Europe and Britain. The media also played a critical role in disseminating the ideas that Reade tried to promote. The author emphasized that Reade acknowledged that he would be facing a massive challenge in Malaya with peoples of different cultures, comprising local communities and immigrants. In addition, Reade's revolutionary action in the replanning and redistribution of building lots in Malaya was not supported by existing regulations. Without the requisite legal regulations, the town planning practices envisioned by Reade could not be implemented. Reade would have found frustrating the fact that the haphazard development which had been foreseen could not be addressed by planning regulations then in place. Kamalruddin Shamsudin (also known as KLDIN) explained the difficulties in putting together the Town Planning Enactment 1923. Although there was no Malayan land law at this point to support this enactment, it successfully laid the foundations for modern town planning in Malaysia. However, this enactment was reviewed eight months after it came into being, and it would not be easy to discover its potential. Nevertheless, by installing this enactment, Reade had started an urban planning trajectory in Malaya which would be used later in Malaysia. This far-reaching measure has led to the institutionalization of town planning in Malaysia and the creation of the Federal Town Planning Department, which has survived until today and has recently been rebranded as Plan Malaysia. KLDIN revealed Reade's many unknown and forgotten contributions behind various prominent institutions in Kuala Lumpur, namely the Victoria Institution, the Petaling Golf Links, and the Merdeka Stadium, all located in the vicinity of Petaling Hill. The author also highlighted Reade's work in Kuala Kubu Bharu, a small township carefully crafted and adapted to suit the Malayan tropical setting, reflecting an early attempt to experiment with the idea of a garden city that was taking hold throughout Britain and its overseas possessions, such as in Egypt and Australia. In the final chapters of this book, the author described the Town Planning Administration (1921–1929). Although the town planning concept has been around since the pre-classical period, its practical application was not seen until the end of the 19th century. Thus, under Reade, the Federal Town Planning Department consisted of qualified engineers and surveyors on secondment from other agencies...

Sources of metaphilosophy

The concept of “metaphilosophy” appeared in the 40s XX century, though it is based on the positions of antique philosophy. Understanding of this phenomenon of culture can be found in philosophy from the early stages of its existence. The authors considered the philosophical discourse from the position of historical-philosophical and metaphilosophical methods combined. The research was aimed at studying the transformation of understanding and functioning of philosophy of the ancient philosophical tradition and its peculiarities at all stages of development. It was found that in the pre-classical period of ancient Greek culture, philosophy functioned primarily as intelligence about nature and later became a striving for wisdom and knowledge. A philosopher was perceived as a practitioner of what he taught, wrote and researched. The further development of metaphilosophy was influenced by a two-vector understanding of ancient philosophy – theoretical and practical.

A Glance at Circuit Theory Development [Historical

Although circuit theory is fundamental in the study and design of electric systems for both information and power applications, its history has seldom been told in the scientific literature. This article is an attempt to fill that gap, at least partially, by surveying its development up to circa 1924, i.e., mainly in the preclassical period, according to Herbert Carlin's definition [1]. Short biographical notes have been added to delineate the merits of the major authors.

PIANO SONATS BY SIGNOR BER FROM KRAKOW MANUSCRIPTS AND CZECH MUSIC CULTURE OF THE SECOND HALF OF 18TH CENTURY

Three sonatas have been studied for Signor Ber’s clavicembalo from a music manuscript belonging to the family of famous 18th century Polish aristocrats Czartoryski, currently kept at the National Museum of Poland in Krakow. The famous Ukrainian composer Maksym Berezovskyi was considered the author of the sonatas; however, according to the authorized manuscript sources it was specified that Czech musicians – J. Colizzi, J. Vaňhal and, probably, J. Ber, have written these sonatas. In this case, the manuscript of three sonatas from the Krakow archive is a monument of Czech instrumental music of the second half of the 18th century, and sonatas themselves belong to the pre-classical period, as indicated by the peculiarities of style and musical form. The study of the intonation-thematic and structural features of the Krakow manuscript sonatas showed a clear orientation to the samples of instrumental music of the early classical style, revealed a tendency towards rationality and logical clarity of musical thinking. The correspondence with the basic tendencies of the early classical shaping is observed in the mastery of the sonata form (so far at the pre-classical level), in the principles of structural design of small constructions and large sections of the musical form, in the intonational multielementality of the main themes, in the transparency of the texture, in the predominance of the homophonic harmonic tissue with the harmonic tissue for melody and accompaniment, in the presence of constructions based on figurative-passage technique, etc. All these features, as well as the choice of the major tonalities, and taking into account the timbre capabilities of the harpsichord, influenced the imagery of the sonatas and the nature of their sound. Therefore, the Clavier sonatas of the Krakow manuscript are written in a gallant manner and are examples of instrumental music of the pre-classical period.

РАННЯ ГРЕЦЬКА ФІЛОСОФІЯ ПРО ЖІНКУ: МІЖ АПОЛОГІЄЮ ТА МІЗОГІНІЄЮ

The article provides a historical and philosophical reconstruction and a comprehensive and systematic coverage of the understanding of women in the fragments of thinkers of the pre-classical period of ancient philosophy. Preclassical ancient philosophy reflected mainly in four conceptual aspects: cosmological, embryological, misogynistic and apologetic. It is proved that in fact every of the early ancient Greek thinkers to a certain extent concerned the understanding of the phenomenon of women. It is highlighted that, based on the evidence of Akusilaus, Pythagoras and Empedocles, the phenomenon of the female arises as one of the formative factors along with the male, which implicitly speaks of the equality of both sexes in the cosmological aspect. It is substantiated that the ancient Greek preclassical embryology, although in many respects was mistaken in its views, however, these "false ideas" testified to the equality of both sexes for the emergence of a new person in the world. It was revealed that the misogynistic ideas of the early ancient thinkers were based on the fact that a woman has certain flaws, and therefore it is a big trouble if a person is under her power. Sometimes, such a vision led the philosophers of this period to have a negative attitude towards the institution of marriage. It was revealed that apologetic thinking about women were based on the fact that a woman has the right to education, training, and also that the main thing is to see in a woman not only an object of desire and a bearer of beauty, but a decent citizen who obeys power and established traditions. Preserved fragments of early Greek philosophers indicate the continuity of thought in ancient philosophy and their reception as thinkers of the classical (Plato, Aristotle) and Hellenistic (Plutarch, Simplicius, Philo) periods. The achievements of the pre-Socratics in the context of this issue also indicate that the women's issue arose from the very beginning of Western European philosophical discourse.

Interpretative aspect of C. Saint‑Saëns’s piano music

Interpretative aspect of C. Saint‑Saëns’s piano music

Legal Implication of Ownership in Common in Roman Private Law and Its Reception by European Jurisdictions

The scientific article deals with the formation of the structure of ownership in common in Roman private law and its further reception by European jurisdictions. It explores the way the imperfect regulations that treated ownership in common as an inevitable exception in the pre-classical period of Roman law evolved into an entirely different approach in its classical period, whereby the key principles of the legal regulations on ownership in common were eventually implemented by the jurisdictions of most European countries. The wide recognition of the norms of Roman private law, which included regulations on ownership in common, affirms the universal character of the structures regulations and structures, which were developed in ancient Rome. These features are also applicable to the concept of ownership in common developed in Roman law.

Jane M. Gaines, Pink-Slipped: What Happened to Women in the Silent Film Industries? Kristen Anderson Wagner, Comic Venus: Women and Comedy in American Silent Film. Maggie Hennefeld, Specters of Slapstick and Silent Film Comediennes

It will soon be five decades since Sharon Smith and Anthony Slide each published research revealing the surprising extent of women’s filmmaking during the pre-classical period of American cinema that ended a century ago.1 It has been over twenty-five years since the Women Film Pioneers Project2 was founded by Jane M. Gaines, whose latest book, Pink-Slipped: What Happened to Women in the Silent Film Industries?, sets out to push the ‘reset’ button on feminist film historiography. Meanwhile Kristen Anderson Wagner’s Comic Venus: Women and Comedy in American Silent Film and Maggie Hennefeld’s Specters of Slapstick and Silent Film Comediennes reclaim silent-era comedy, a genre slow to be taken up by feminist scholars, as a means of feminist assault on power structures. This review considers how the three books reconceptualize not only the nature and dimensions of women’s filmmaking and influence in the silent era but those of feminist film history itself.

Rhodian law as a prototype of the claim for damage


 
 
 The doctrine of Rhodian law of jettison has a long history in Roman law and has been inherited by numerous legal systems of today. during the pre-classical period of Roman law, Rhodian law was incorporated in the Roman legal system, and probably it was implied in all contracts of carrying goods by sea. Rhodian law was also a prototype of a claim for damage suffered in another person’s interests in Polish civil law. The Author presents the origin of general average, the reasons of the introduction of this regulation, as well as its function in roman law and Polish civil law. The article explores the premises of the regulation and provides its comparative analysis. Art. 438 of the Polish Civil Code of 1964 is rarely used in practice due to many competing actions that can be taken by suffered persons. From the point of view of the purpose of this regulation, the most important is to encourage third parties to intervene in the interests of others, which is desirable preventive behavior that can be recognized as a quasi- preventive remedy and is necessary in today’s society.
 
 

Legal Consequences of the Prohibition on Widows’ Remarriage in Roman Law

In the archaic period violations of the prohibition relating to mourning was regarded as a nefas and hence subject to penalisation under religious law. A widow guilty of an infringement was required to make an expiatory sacrifce known as a piaculum, viz. a bovis feta. This religious and customary practice underwent a series of transformations and eventually became a law (ius). In the pre-classical period the prohibition on the remarriage of widows in the period of mourning was perceived primarily as subject to penalties laid down by civil law. This was due to the question of the paternity of any offspring such a widow might bear in the tempus lugendi. The edictum perpetuum names the persons who were liable to infamy if they committed a breach of the prohibition on the remarriage of a widow within the period of mourning for her deceased husband. Such persons could neither engage in postulare pro aliis nor act as a procurator or cognitor. One of the consequences of a sentence of praetorian infamy was the convicted person’s forfeiture of the right to appoint his or her plenipotentiaries for legal proceedings.The classical period brought fundamental changes in the law on remarriage. Nonetheless, even though Augustus encouraged citizens to remarry, yet his legal provisions left widows a certain period of time following the loss of their husband in which they could refrain from remarrying. The reason behind this legal arrangement was not so much mourning as such; it was rather a question of Augustus wanting to show his respect for univirae (women who had been married only once). Augustus kept in force the provisions that gave a bad reputation to people who violated the prohibition of widows’ remarriage. The significance and effectiveness of these regulations made them a subject for jurists’ commentary, on account of the need to avoid situations where the paternity of children born to widows was uncertain. The prohibition on the remarriage of widows also shows that the creators of these regulations wanted marriage to be contracted primarily for the purpose of procreation, which would ensure the continuation of Roman families, especially as regards the perpetuation of their sacra, nomina, and pecunia.

The fret-harmonic content of the Chinese melos (on the example of samples for the voice and piano in the modern arrangement)

The fret-harmonic content of the Chinese melos (on the example of samples for the voice and piano in the modern arrangement)

The fret-harmonic content of the Chinese melos (on the example of samples for the voice and piano in the modern arrangement)

The fret-harmonic content of the Chinese melos (on the example of samples for the voice and piano in the modern arrangement)

The Early Iron Age settlement of Artashat and problems of chrono-topography of the site (pre-Classical period)

The archaeological study of the capital of ancient Armenia, Artashat, and the multiple approach to scholarly understanding of the materials found during its excavations, have been the focus of attention of researchers for more than four decades. Such an interest is caused by the unique role of this city in the history and culture of ancient Armenia, and its importance in the system of trans-regional cultural, economic and political relations between the states of ancient Western Asia and the Mediterranean.