Power Plants In Germany Research Articles

RENEWABLE ENERGY CSOPS: AN UPDATED ANALYSIS FOR WIND POWER APPLICATIONS

(ProQuest: ... denotes formulae omitted.)1. INTRODUCTIONRenewable power has gained increasing importance during the last two decades, at least. Dependent on their natural prerequisites such as landscape or the climate, but also based on their predominant energy supply structure, countries all over the world focus on different kinds of renewable power production. Areas with heavy insolation tend to invest into solar power (either solar heat and/or photovoltaics, PV), while countries that possess convenient wind conditions invest into wind turbines. Also, there are countries that exhibit good conditions for hydro power or geothermal power.In contrast to forms of energy production, renewable energy comprises both advantages and challenges: While conventional power requires fuel, most renewable power systems do not, and as such, usually possess very low or even zero marginal costs. That is, once the facility (e.g. a solar park or a wind turbine) is installed, it requires little maintenance. However, many countries' power supply structure is arranged in a centralized way, due to monolithic coal and/or nuclear power plants. This oftentimes led to natural monopolies in the past, with all its advantages and disadvantages. Contrary, most renewable forms of energy production require a decentralized arrangement, which poses difficulties for the energy distribution system, but also has the potential to reface the traditional, monopolistic scheme of energy production.This is where the kelsonian CSOP (Consumer Stock Ownership Plan) idea comes into place: CSOPs, as discussed by Kelso and Adler (1958) and Kelso and Kelso (1986), provide a legal construct that is specifically designed to enable consumers to participate in productive capital and helps to cracking prevalent monopolies. Kelso (1989) describes the CSOP's mode of operation in great detail and also discusses the successful first CSOP implementation of Valley Nitrogen Producers Inc. in 1958, busting a prevalent local monopoly in the fertilizer industry, decreasing the fertilizer prices drastically and bringing allocations back to more economically efficient levels.Today, the CSOP can be seen as an alternative to the cooperative model of decentralized production facilities, especially for (but not limited to) renewable power production. Lowitzsch and Goebel (2013) argue that in comparison, the CSOP is a more flexible, low-overhead and low-threshold approach for consumers investing into power production projects. In this paper we analyze whether CSOP-financed wind power production can be profitable under certain conditions: We compare two wind potential regimes, each at two roll-out scenarios and two scenarios for the economic climate. In total, we have eight scenarios. These scenarios are set-up to work as a sensitivity test for each other: As such, for example they show how the system will react if there are changes to the interest rates or to the wind conditions. Comparing the right selection of two scenarios will allow for a brief sensitivity analysis, keeping all other factors constant (comparative static analysis). For each of the scenarios, we discuss the amortization time, the free cash flow development, the repayment interests and the returns paths, as well as other indicators. The simulation of CSOP implementations takes place for wind power plants in Germany, since the CSOP concept is already adapted for the German company law structure. Also, Germany possesses attractive wind power sites and a guaranteed feed-in tariff. Furthermore, there are governmental subsidies for renewable power in the form of low interest loans. In conclusion, we find that the concept usually comes to profitable solutions and provides rewarding investments.The paper is structured as follows: Section 2 provides a brief overview of the CSOP implementation. Afterward, Section 3 discusses the proposed investment projects in general. In Section 4 we present the financial indicators used. …

Mercury emissions of a coal-fired power plant in Germany

Abstract. Hg ∕ SO2, Hg ∕ CO, NOx ∕ SO2 (NOx being the sum of NO and NO2) emission ratios (ERs) in the plume of the coal-fired power plant (CFPP), Lippendorf, near Leipzig, Germany, were determined within the European Tropospheric Mercury Experiment (ETMEP) aircraft campaign in August 2013. The gaseous oxidized mercury (GOM) fraction of mercury emissions was also assessed. Measured Hg ∕ SO2 and Hg ∕ CO ERs were within the measurement uncertainties consistent with the ratios calculated from annual emissions in 2013 reported by the CFPP operator, while the NOx ∕ SO2 ER was somewhat lower. The GOM fraction of total mercury emissions, estimated using three independent methods, was below ∼ 25 %. This result is consistent with other findings and suggests that GOM fractions of ∼ 40 % of CFPP mercury emissions in current emission inventories are overestimated.

Risk Management and Portfolio Optimization for Gas- and Coal-Fired Power Plants in Germany: A Multivariate GARCH Approach

We investigate the hedging effectiveness of energy derivatives traded at the European Energy Exchange (EEX), which can be used for mitigating the risk exposure of gas- and coal-fired power plants in Germany. Our aim is to identify the optimum forward contract for simultaneously hedging power output and fuel input price risk. The optimum hedging contract for each commodity is identified with the help of a multivariate GARCH model (D-BEKK model). We find that it is more prudent to hedge the spot electricity and coal prices with long-term contracts, whereas for natural gas prices there is evidence that short-term futures enable higher hedging effectiveness. Further, with all futures contracts available we construct portfolios and compare the hedging performance with that of the individual futures contracts. More specifically, we first identify the point at which the combination of spot and forward prices gives the maximum reduction of risk exposure and then investigate the impact of time-varying risk premiums on the spot-forward price relationship. Finally, we compute portfolio weights for different risk levels that reveal the optimal mix of spot and futures contracts. The results show that electricity and coal both produce negative returns, whereas for natural gas we are able to construct economically viable portfolios, albeit with low returns.

Risk management and portfolio optimization for gas- and coal-fired power plants in Germany: a multivariate GARCH approach

Risk management and portfolio optimization for gas- and coal-fired power plants in Germany: a multivariate GARCH approach

Life cycle assessment of membrane-based carbon capture and storage

Many investigations have conducted life cycle assessments (LCA) of the most commonly discussed routes of carbon capture and storage (CCS): post-combustion with amine wash separation; oxyfuel using cryogenic air separation and pre-combustion by integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC) using physical separation. A research alliance developed corresponding separation systems using different types of membranes to allow a more energy efficient separation process: polyactive polymeric membranes for post-combustion, ceramic membranes for oxyfuel and metallic membranes for IGCC separation. By conducting an LCA, the study examines the actual greenhouse gas emissions and other environmental impacts of the new membrane separation technologies, together with concepts implementing the more common technologies. The reference systems represent today’s state-of-the-art supercritical coal fired power plant in Germany, together with a more advanced ultra-supercritical plant operating at 700 °C without CO2 capture. The results demonstrate that among the three reference power plants the IGCC is the superior concept due to the highest efficiency. Regarding climate change, the IGCC power plants with CO2 capture are still the best concepts. When other environmental impacts are considered, the capture technologies are inferior. The membrane concepts show the overall better results in comparison to the conventional capture technologies. The environmental impacts for membrane applications add a new range of findings to the field of CCS LCAs. Now the results for several different approaches can be compared directly for the first time.

Scenario-based comparative assessment of potential future electricity systems – A new methodological approach using Germany in 2050 as an example

In this paper a new method for the evaluation and comparison of potential future electricity systems is presented. The German electricity system in the year 2050 is used as an example. Based on a comprehensive scenario analysis defining a corridor for possible shares of fluctuating renewable energy sources (FRES) residual loads are calculated in a unified manner. The share of electricity from PV and wind power plants in Germany in the year 2050 is in a range of 42–122% and the load demand has a bandwidth of around 460–750TWh. The residual loads are input for an algorithm that defines a supplementary mix of technologies providing flexibility to the system. The overall system layout guarantees the balance of generation and demand at all times. Due to the fact that the same method for residual load calculation and mixture of technologies is applied for all scenarios, a good comparability is guaranteed and we are able to identify key characteristics for future developments. The unique feature of the new algorithms presented here is the very fast calculation for a year-long simulation with hourly or shorter time steps taking into account the state of charge or availability of all storage and flexibility technologies. This allows an analysis of many different scenarios on a macro-economic level, variation of input parameters can easily be done, and extensive sensitivity analysis is possible. Furthermore different shares of FRES, CO2-emission targets, interest rates or social acceptance of certain technologies can be included. The capabilities of the method are demonstrated by an analysis of potential German power system layouts with a base scenario of 90% CO2-reduction target compared to 1990 and by the identification of different options for a power sector with a high degree of decarbonisation. The approach also aims at a very high level of transparency both regarding the algorithms and regarding the input parameters of the different technologies taken into account. Therefore this paper also gives a comprehensive and complete overview on the technology parameters used. The forecast on all technologies for the year 2050 regarding technical and economic parameters was made in a comprehensive consultation process with more than 100 experts representing academia and industry working on all different technologies. An extensive analysis of options for the design of potential German energy supply systems in 2050 based on the presented methodology will be published in a follow-up paper.

Primary control provided by large-scale battery energy storage systems or fossil power plants in Germany and related environmental impacts

Increasing renewable energy generation influences the reliability of electric power grids. Thus, there is a demand for new technical units providing ancillary services. Non-dispatchable renewable energy sources can be balanced by energy storage devices. By large-scale battery energy storage systems (BESSs) grid efficiency and reliability as well as power quality can be increased. A further characteristic of BESSs is the ability to respond rapidly and precisely to frequency deviations, making them technical ideal candidates for primary control provision (PCP).In this paper environmental impacts of PCP by novel Li-ion BESSs are compared to impacts of PCP by state-of-the-art coal power plants (CPPs) using a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) approach and considering German control market conditions. The coal power plant stock is characterized by varying properties. Thus, different scenarios of CPP operation are analyzed by varying sensitive parameters like efficiency loss and required must-run capacity. Finally, PCP by BESSs and CPPs are compared in terms of environmental performance. The more must-run electricity generation is attributable to PCP of CPPs, the higher are the environmental impacts of these CPPs. This leads to a better relative environmental performance of BESSs in most scenarios. Contrary, comparative or even better environmental performance of CPPs compared to state-of-the-art BESSs can solely be achieved if power plants without load restrictions for provision of primary control and with extreme low efficiency losses caused by PCP are applied. Consequently, the results of this paper indicate that BESSs are a promising option to reduce environmental impacts of primary control provision.

Flexible strategies to facilitate carbon capture deployment at pulverised coal power plants

This paper assesses operational strategies for deploying flexible CO2 capture at three generic black coal fired power plants with distinct dispatch profiles. Flexible operating modes involving constant partial CO2 capture, part-time capture, and variable capture are examined in conjunction with seasonal effects of summer and winter. The three generic dispatch profiles are selected to represent typical black coal base load power plants in Australia and black coal power plants in Germany and perhaps future UK base load power plants in 2011. The results show that for a generic 700MW subcritical power plant, operating under variable capture mode results in the highest amount of CO2 captured and avoided and thus the lowest cost. The estimated cost of CO2 avoided ranges from about $70 to $150 per tonne of CO2 avoided using variable capture, increasing to $186 to $226 per tonne of CO2 avoided for constant partial capture. The flexible capture modes investigated can reduce the overall CO2 emissions of a power plant by up to 50%.

Development and validation of a dynamic simulation model for a large coal-fired power plant

The rapid expansion of renewables due massive use of subsidies in the last years changes the operation of fossil fired power plants in Germany dramatically. Since the large-scale storage of electricity is still difficult and forecasts for wind and solar energy have unavoidable uncertainties, the conventional power plants have to compensate the demand in the grid. Several new measures are introduced by power plants operators in order to respond to these new market conditions like the reduction of the low load operation of the nominal load and the continuous operation at an off-design operation point. In this work, a full-scale dynamic model of large scale coal-fired power plant has been developed to investigate the operation flexibility. The dynamic model, developed in the process simulation program APROS, includes all power plant components and its associated control schemas. The only boundary conditions are the coal composition, the ambient temperature and the temperature and amount of cooling water in condensers. The developed model is validated against operational data from the real power plant during part load transients, showing a very good agreement. The validated model is of high relevance for further investigations regarding flexibility increase in conventional large coal-fired power plants.

Hydro-climatic conditions and thermoelectric electricity generation – Part II: Model application to 17 nuclear power plants in Germany

In highly developed countries electricity generation is one of the largest water users. Water is mainly used in the cooling processes of thermal power plants. In as yet less developed countries, electricity requirements are also increasing in step with increasing production and standard of living. Renewable electricity generation is gaining more attention in both highly and less developed economies. However, many types of renewable electricity generation, e.g. wind or solar, are still unreliable due to their dependence on weather conditions. This is why electricity generation by thermal power plants will remain a substantial component of the overall energy system for the next decades.An approach is applied here for analysing links between water availability and water temperature, air temperature and electricity generation by power plants. A highly disaggregated level is used combining a power plant model and hydrological models. It is applied to analyse effects of climate change on 17 nuclear power plants in Germany. Although even under baseline conditions reduced electricity generation can be observed, any further increase in air temperatures reduces electricity output of almost all nuclear power plants. The different technological and environmental conditions of each plant site mean that specific models are necessary for the simulations.

Fuzzy Portfolio Optimization of Onshore Wind Power Plants

In this paper we apply fuzzy set theory to the portfolio optimization of power generation assets, using a semi-mean absolute deviation (SMAD) model as a benchmark and a fuzzy semi-mean absolute deviation (FSMAD) model for comparison. The two models are applied to five onshore wind power plants in Germany considered for the portfolio analysis. The results show that the combinations of favorable assets for efficient portfolios are very similar, although the portfolio shares are markedly different. Also, the return and risk span of the SMAD model are much broader than those of the FSMAD model. The highest returns are generated by portfolios based on the latter model. Offering less portfolio choices, the FSMAD model thus facilitates decision-making. This is in compliance with the notion that portfolio optimization by fuzzy set theory is able to better account for the decision-maker’s preferences under real-world conditions.

Hydro-climatic conditions and thermoelectric electricity generation – Part I: Development of models

In recent years there have been several heat waves affecting the use of thermoelectric power plants, e.g. in Europe and the U.S. In this paper the linkage between hydro-climatic conditions and possible electricity generation restrictions is described. The coupling of hydrological models and a power plant model is presented. In this approach each power plant is considered separately with its technical specifications. Also environmental regulations, e.g. permissible rise in the cooling water temperature, are considered for the respective power plant. The hydrological models developed to simulate river runoff and water temperature are also site specific.The approach presented is applied to Krümmel nuclear power plant in Germany. Analysed are the uncertainties with regard to electricity generation restrictions on account of climatic developments and corresponding higher water temperatures and low flows. Overall, increased water temperatures and declining river runoff lead to more frequent and more severe generation restrictions. It is concluded that the site-specific approach is necessary to reliably simulate power plants water demand, river runoff and water temperature. Using a simulation time step of one day, electricity generation restrictions are significantly higher than for simulations at monthly time step.

Modeling the Merit Order Curve of the European Energy Exchange Power Market in Germany

An updating study concerning the analysis and modeling of the European Energy Exchange power market in Germany is urgently called for due to the dramatic transformations of the market in recent years. Based on careful data research, this paper provides a consolidated and detailed view concerning the development of the market and its mechanisms. This paper proposes a new analytical model of the merit order curve of the market. The model is designed to capture the occurrences of negative prices. It considers fuel prices and CO2 prices, and by taking into account the structural changes of the market such as the increasing energy in-feed from renewable sources and the moratorium of nuclear power plants in Germany, the model is robust to these changes of market fundamentals. The proposed merit-order-curve model constitutes a critical component in realistic fundamental models for the European Energy Exchange power market.

Frequency of damage by external explosion hazards based on geographical information

Abstract External explosions can significantly contribute to risk of damage for industrial plants. External explosions may origin from other plants in the neighbourhood, which store and operate with explosive substances, or from transport of such substances on road, rail, or water. If deflagration is involved, ignition will not necessarily occur at the place of the accident, but a cloud of a combustible gas-air mixture may develop, which will ignite at some distance depending on wind velocity. A probabilistic model has been developed to calculate frequencies of damage based on numerical integration or on Monte Carlo simulation. Geographical information systems provide map material for sites, roads, rail and rivers on a computer. Data has been collected and applied for a nuclear power plant in Germany as an example. The method, however, can be used for any type of plant subject to external explosion hazards.

Economic viability of biomass cofiring in new hard-coal power plants in Germany

Biomass cofiring in coal power plants (with thermal contributions of typically 5–20%) is an interesting option to mitigate CO2 emissions, since the additional costs are relatively minor and a secondary benefit is provided by the increased fuel flexibility. Worldwide, about 150 cofiring plants are in operation. In Germany, the electrical power potential for biomass cofiring in coal plants is about 28 TWh per annum, assuming a 10% replacement of coal combustion by biomass. In this paper, we study the economic potential of biomass cofiring in hard coal power plants in Germany. To this end, we identify suitable biomass input fuels, investment and operating costs, and the profitability of cofiring investments. In a sensitivity analysis, we check for the robustness of the results gained, and in a Monte Carlo simulation (MCS) uncertainties are explicitly taken into account. We find that both regional and international biomass supplies are relevant, and that the cost effectiveness of cofiring is strongly affected by the prices for biomass, coal and CO2 permits, while investment and operating costs only have a modest influence. According to our calculations, electrical power generation costs attributable to biomass combustion for a plant put into operation in 2020 are between 70 and 75 € MWh−1, while the average costs of biomass fuel from various sources and markets are calculated to be around 4.1 € GJ−1.

Analysis of performance losses of thermal power plants in Germany – A System Dynamics model approach using data from regional climate modelling

The majority of thermal power plants of more than 300 MW use river water for cooling purposes. Increasing water and air temperatures due to climate change can significantly impact the efficiency and the power production of these power plants. In this paper we analyse these impacts by modelling selected German thermal power plant units and their respective cooling systems through dynamic simulation taking into account legal thresholds for heat discharges to river water together with climate data projections (SRES scenarios A1B, A2, and B1). Possible output and efficiency reductions in the future (2011–2040 and 2041–2070) are quantified for thermal power plants with once-through (OTC) and closed-circuit (CCC) cooling systems under current legislative framework. The model validation showed that the chosen System Dynamics approach is appropriate to analyse impacts of climate change on thermal power units. The model results indicate lowest impacts for units with CCC systems: The mean trend for CCC for the A1B scenario (2011–2070) is expected to be −0.10 MW/a and −0.33 MW/a for an OTC system. On a daily basis, the power output of all considered OTC units is reduced down to 66.4% of the nominal capacity, for a single unit even down to 32%.

Economics of Biomass Co-Firing in New Hard Coal Power Plants in Germany

Biomass cofiring in coal power plants (with shares of typically 5-20%th) is an interesting option to mitigate CO2 emissions, since the additional costs are relatively minor and a secondary benefit is provided by the increased fuel flexibility. Worldwide, about 150 cofiring plants are in operation. In Germany, the potential for biomass cofiring in coal plants is about 28 TWhel per annum, assuming a 10% replacement of coal combustion by biomass. In this paper, we study the economic potential of biomass cofiring in hard coal power plants in Germany. To this end, we identify suitable biomass input fuels, investment and operating costs, and profitability of cofiring investments. In a sensitivity analysis, we check for the robustness of the results gained, and in a Monte Carlo simulation (MCS) uncertainties are explicitly taken into account. We find that both regional and international biomass supplies are relevant, and that the cost effectiveness of cofiring is strongly affected by prices for biomass, coal and CO2 permits, while investment and operating costs only have a modest influence. According to our calculations, power generation costs attributable to biomass combustion for a plant put into operation in 2020 are between 70-75 € MWhel -1 , while the average costs of biomass fuel from various sources and markets are calculated to be around 4.1 € GJ -1 .

Economic Evaluation of IGCC Plants with Hot Gas Cleaning

This paper investigates whether coal- or biomass-fired Integrated Gasification Combined-Cycle (IGCC) power plants can serve as an economically viable future technology for providing clean electricity and heat in Germany. In the context of CO2 emission reduction in power generation, energy conversion technologies that enable the implementation of Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) need to be considered. IGCC is one such technology, as it utilizes coal or biomass but does not necessarily emit CO2. We therefore investigate whether IGCC plants can, from an economic perspective, be an alternative to nuclear and/or conventional coal-fired power plants. Our research is undertaken with the help of scenario analysis. The possible shut-down of nuclear power stations as well as of outdated coal-fired power plants, together with the evolution of CO2 prices, provides the starting point of our study. The option of hot gas cleaning in IGCC plants is of particular interest, as it is expected to significantly enhance the efficiency of IGCC technology and allows for combined heat and power production (CHP). Corresponding supplementary earnings (incl. subsidies) are compared with an increase in specific investment costs. Besides the hot gas cleaning advancement, we also investigate the injection of pure CO2 (separated from the IGCC process) into oilfields, as it reduces the costs of CO2 transport and storage through Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR). Based on the results, a judgement on the ability of IGCC technology to replace nuclear power stations and/or conventional coal-fired power plants in Germany is made. Net present values calculated provide decision-support for energy suppliers about the if and when to invest in IGCC plants. We find that only a partial substitution of current power plants by IGCC facilities is reasonable, e.g. for locational reasons, whereas a complete abandonment of IGCC technology seems to be unlikely from the current point of view.

Independent assessor's report on the experience with preparation, managing, observing and evaluation of emergency exercises without prior notice in nuclear power plants

Abstract We inspect regularly the measures taken in terms of the plants operator emergency management organisation in supposed emergency situations and assess their effectiveness on behalf of the supervisory authorities under the atomic energy law. To this end corresponding exercises based on scenarios that have been prepared by ESN are carried out in the plants and followed by a group of independent observers. The course and effectiveness of measures initiated are assessed in the form of an expert's report. ESN prepared, managed, observed und evaluated more than 75 emergency exercises in nuclear power plants in the last twenty years. With this experience and particularly with the experience feedback between plants we contributed to the development of the internal emergency management for nuclear power plants in Germany. This paper at hand summarizes some of our experience.

Energy policy scenarios to reach challenging climate protection targets in the German electricity sector until 2050

In this article we demonstrate how challenging greenhouse gas reduction targets of up to 95% until 2050 can be achieved in the German electricity sector. In the analysis, we focus on the main requirements to reach such challenging targets. To account for interdependencies between the electricity market and the rest of the economy, different models were used to account for feedback loops with all other sectors. We include scenarios with different runtimes and retrofit costs for existing nuclear plants to determine the effects of a prolongation of nuclear power plants in Germany. Key findings for the electricity sector include the importance of a European-wide coordinated electricity grid extension and the exploitation of regional comparative cost effects for renewable sites. Due to political restrictions, nuclear energy will not be available in Germany in 2050. However, the nuclear life-time extension has a positive impact on end consumer electricity prices as well as economic growth in the medium term, if retrofit costs do not exceed certain limits.