Power Plant Building Research Articles

Energy efficiency and conservation in Nepal

Nepal is a landlocked country occupying the southern slope of the Himalayas, between the perpetual snows on the crest of the mountains along its northern border with China and its southern tropical lowlands bordering India. Nepal has therefore a tremendous hydroelectric potential, but no other sources of energy, except for firewood extensively used by its predominantly rural population. The rapid growth of the population, which was originally concentrated in the middle temperate zone of the country, resulted in a rapid disappearance of forests in that region. The fairly recent success in controlling malaria in the tropical southern belt resulted in a rush of people into that area, in search of more arable land, with an attendant cutting of forests on a large scale. The deforestation with accompanying soil erosion is a major national disaster, progressively aggravating since the second quarter of this century. Re-forestation on a massive scale is urgent and imperative. Unfortunately the replacement of fuelwood by hydroelectricity is stymied because of lack of capital to build power plants and a distribution network. However, small power plants have and are being built to satisfy local energy demand in isolated villages. Motor transport has so far been small because of lack of roads. It is bound to increase, however, with the expansion of the road network. This will result in an increase in demand for imported gasoline. The energy problem is aggravated by the lack of understanding of the importance of firewood conservation by the rural population. The Government has recently launched a propaganda campaign in order to remedy this.

Dynamic testing of as-built nuclear power plant buildings: An evaluative review

This is a review and evaluation of tests performed on as-built nuclear power plant buildings in many countries during the past several years. Goals of dynamic tests, excitation techniques, excitation levels, and posttest determination of dynamic characteristics are reviewed, and proposed analytical methods are discussed. Dynamic testing is found to be feasible, and low-level testing is deemed to be useful for verifying analytical models used in design practice. Proof testing at design-level excitation is considered impractical, and only a combined program of low-level testing and analytical modeling is considered to be the means for predicting response to high-level excitations. The need for better analytical modeling and for the validation of existing and proposed analytical methodologies calls for further effort before testing can become part of the normal licensing process.

Energy development in China: The need for a coherent policy

China, the world's third largest consumer of primary energy, remains in relative terms a poor developing country. Ambitious modernization plans, exemplified by the goal of quadrupling per capita GNP by the year 2000, will require considerable attention to long-range energy planning. Yet the past developments, including the most recent guidelines, have been marked by abrupt changes and outright reversals leaving China without any coherent energy policy. The most durable strategies which emerged during the late 1970s are: the stress on coal as the principal fuel; building of mine-mouth power plants; accelerated construction of large hydro stations; massive diffusion of small biogas digesters; and widespread energy conservation measures.

America's Abundant Electricity and the ASME Boiler Code

The building of great steam power plants with utmost consideration for public safety has created today's American miracle of abundant electricity. Behind this great achievement stand the mechanical engineers who have designed and built these power plants under their ethical responsibilities for public safety, in full compliance with the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) Boiler Code and under the strict disciplines imposed by a specialist insurance company willing to write 100 percent insurance coverage against boiler explosions. The historical origin of this great achievement dates back to the days of the Civil War and a small group of men with exceptional vision and a profound concern for public safety. They saw the opportunity to apply their talents and sense of responsibility to solving the problem of steam boiler explosions and the terrible losses of human lives. These early leaders have earned the esteem and honor of our present and future generations, but who remembers them? Today, in the scientific revolution of this century, there is a critical need for similar new leaders of exceptional integrity, responsibility, and initiative, both in engineering and in industry.

Modeling of slabs in seismic analysis of nuclear power plant buildings

Abstract Safety related nuclear power plant buildings are commonly represented as lumped mass weightless elastic beam stick models to determine their dynamic behavior under seismic ground motions. Implicit in this analysis procedure is the assumption that the floor slabs are rigid. This paper critically evaluates the slab flexibilities in typical power plant buildings and presents a practical approach to include these in the seismic analysis. Vertical as well as horizontal earthquake components are considered. Results presented include amplified floor response spectra for equipment qualification and design forces in floor slabs and the supporting walls. A satisfactory analysis procedure would consist of traditional stick model analysis to obtain overall seismic responses, force distribution by static analysis using suitable methods such as the finite element method and subsystem analysis to evaluate local amplifications, if necessary.

Isolation of nuclear power plants from earthquake attack

The analysis of one-mass and two-mass models indicates that the earthquake-generated horizontal forces and deformations of the main structures of a nuclear power plant can be reduced by a factor of about ten times by mounting the overall power plant building on a recently developed base-isolation system. The very high forces which the ‘resonant appendage‘ effect may induce in some critical components (such as fuel elements, control rods and essential piping) may be reduced by a factor of 40 or more times by the isolation system. The parameters of the isolation system have been chosen as appropriate to the level of protection which should be provided for a nuclear plant in a seismically active area. Consideration is given to flexible mounts and dampers suitable for such an isolator.

Response of equipment in nuclear power plants to airplane crash

Nuclear power plants in Germany are to be designed against airplane crash. Two problems arise: first, the local problem of penetration as well as local destruction of the building and secondly the airplane induced vibrations of the whole building which cause loadings for secondary systems (equipment). This paper deals especially with the second problem. Floor response spectra due to airplane crash are presented for two different power plant buildings. The influence of various parameters (time history of excitation, direction and location of impact, mathematical model, soil, damping, etc.) are discussed. A comparison with the results of earthquake loading is given. Suggestions are made for developing suitable floor design spectra and using them to analyse multidegree-of-freedom systems. However, the paper gives only a partial answer to the questions arising because of some important restrictions which had to be made. Studies concerning these restrictions are still being conducted and will be presented in a separate paper.

Structural analysis and design of a nuclear power plant building for aircraft crash effects

The object of this investigation is to assess the effect of a large commercial airplane crashing perpendicularly on to the surface of a spherical reactor building dome. This investigation is related to a project currently in execution. Practical solutions of the postulated case, which vary in the degree of engineering effort used, are shown. Based on safety consideration the various solutions are discussed from the viewpoint of penetration, cracking and collapse modes of failure, where, primarily, the carrying capacity of the structure under an equivalent statical load is considered. The performed investigations include: 1. (a) Calculation of the failure load following the yield line theory; 2. (b) Calculation of the sectional forces using the linear-elastic shell theory and subsequent design by the ultimate strength method; 3. (c) Calculation of the failure load, establishing of the failure mechanism and distribution of sectional forces using the plastic shell theory; 4. (d) Calculation using a three-dimensional FEM program with plastic capabilities; this includes the collapse load, the failure mechanism and the distribution of sectional forces. A discussion of the resultant forces and the configutation of the critical section is given for the various methods used. The evaluation of the carrying capacity of the structure with respect to load is based on energy considerations. It is attempted to compare such results, to evaluate possible simplifications in the used solutions, and to give some recommendations for the practical design and for the development of structural details.

A practical system for isolating nuclear power plants from earthquake attack

The earthquake-generated forces and deformations of the main substructures of a nuclear power plant can be reduced by a factor of about ten times by mounting the power plant building on a recently developed base-isolation system. The very high forces which the ‘resonant appendage’ effect may induce in some critical components (such as fuel elements and control rods) may be reduced by a factor of 40 or more by the isolation system. This system combines recently developed hysteretic dampers with components which support the structure while providing high flexibility for horizontal motion. These dampers utilize the plastic deformation of solid steel beams, while a convenient support system with adequate horizontal flexibility may be provided by laminated rubber bearings of the type frequently used to support bridge decks. The earthquake attack on a nuclear power plant is particularly hazardous since it attacks simultaneously all the plant components, including the control and safety systems. Undetected deterioration of a set of components may further increase the probability of multiple failure during earthquakes. Hence the large reduction in earthquake-induced forces and deformations, which may be achieved with the base-isolation system described, will greatly reduce the likelihood of earthquake-induced accident or damage in those nuclear power plants located in regions of high seismicity.

On estimated modes of failure of nuclear power plants by potential earthquakes

This paper deals with the estimated ‘modes of failure’ of nuclear power plants during future violent earthquakes. The authors have been surveying the damage to industrial plants caused by several violent earthquakes since 1960. Some of them have already been reported in English, but here the authors try to rearrange them from the viewpoint of ‘modes of failures’ of nuclear power plant buildings, equipment, vessels and piping. The authors categorize the mechanisms of failure as follows: (i) damaged by the dynamic effect of acceleration waves, (ii) by resonance in displacement waves, (iii) by the static effect of seismic force, (iv) by external force from attached piping and others, or forced deformation, and (v) by liquefaction of soil. The authors try to determine the modes of failure of the following items in a matrix form of the mechanisms: (i) the reactor building, (ii) steel containment vessel, (iii) auxiliary building, (iv) reactor vessel, (v) core internals, (vi) primary and secondary coolant system, (vii) emergency power supply system, (viii) emergency gas treatment system and stack, (ix) fuel cooling pond and fuel rack, (x) refuel machine crane, (xi) auxiliary system and component, (xii) turbine and its pedestal, and (xiii) main power system and control instrumentation. They also examine them from another point of view, i.e. in ‘the classification of the important factor’ of items for their aseismic design.

Environmental Effects of Geothermal Energy Development: ABSTRACT

Most of the undesirable effects of energy usage come from the rejection of heat, waste products, and by-products during the steps of production, transportation, processing, and the conversion of chemical energy to thermal energy. Where geothermal energy can be substituted for coal, oil, or nuclear fuels, it will result in a net reduction of such adverse environmental impacts. Geothermal developments appear to have a major impact when a field such as The Geysers or Wairakei is compared to an electric-power-production facility such as a fossil-fuel or nuclear-power plant. Industrialization, the drilling of wells and the building of pipelines and power plants, constitutes the main impact from geothermal developments. All other impact factors-noise from drilling, possible flashing of steam in separators, release of noncondensable gases, and disposal of spent fluids-can be handled by present technology with minimal investment. Many years of experience at the Larderello field in Italy show that geothermal developments can be compatible with other land uses, as farms, orchards, and vineyards cover much of the productive field with only minimal conflict between th two operations. To give a true picture of the environmental costs from any power source, all steps from the mine to the final product must be added together. The geothermal-steam cycle has fewer steps, fewer energy inputs, and fewer hidden subsidies than any of the coal, oil, or nuclear processes. This simplicity of the geothermal-steam cycle lowers the net-environmental costs and enhances reliability. Because the geothermal-power cycle is self contained, it needs no outside support to maintain the production of electricity; there are no railroads or mines or complex processing facilities to be put out of service by a strike or natural catastrophe or by political decision in a foreign land. End_of_Article - Last_Page 1432------------

The Future of Salmonid Communities in the European Subalpine Lakes

Eutrophication is the main danger threatening European subalpine lakes, particularly the small ones. Among salmonids, char seems already to have suffered severely from organic pollution, and may fare even less well in future, though forecasts are less pessimistic for trout and coregonines. Building of industries and power plants, tampering with shores, shipping, and hydrologic and hydrographic changes must be opposed if these bodies of water are to be preserved in ecologically healthy states. The future of fisheries largely depends on commercial and socio-economic factors.

The Next Industrial Revolution

WHILE WE ALL know that population is a central problem, if we are doers we must do the things the best way we know how for the population we have and what I am talking about is an industrial revolution which is already going on around us. We must have this new industrial revolution; invent it; encourage it. The other industrial revolutions came along somewhat unplanned and certainly people were unprepared for their side effects. The first, which started in England, was magnificent. It was hailed as a way to ennoble man by substituting other forms of power for his muscles. But with that power came filth and smoke and other things that were the side effects. However, the primary benefits were so worth while that the side effects went unnoticed for a time; but you might say that, with power, we had also invented air pollution. Then the availability of power had a second effect; it enabled us to mass produce things for people so tlhat they could have more things to ease their lives. But by mass production, multiplying things to put in people's hands to give them an ease of living, we produced so many things that after use there was more and more to throw away and in this way. we invented the solid waste problem. Then came about the chemical revolution, the ability to tailor-make chemicals, pesticides, herbicides, fertilizers, things that could selectively destroy elements of the biological system which were inim,icable to man. But again with these new chemicals came an upsetting of the ecology and so we invented accelerated eutrophication and other new ways to pollute water. No balanced person regrets the discoveries themselves. Without them we would not be living in the ease of the present century as contrasted to the dis-ease that existed before the first industrial revolution. To replace two hundred million automobiles of a hundred horsepower each would take twenty billion horses each causing 25 pounds of solid waste. That's a lot of organic gardening! Concern, however, for the steadily increasing poisoning and the spoiling of our environment has caused some to just say, stop doing what you're doing, . . . stop increasing the production of things for people. Some conservationists, for example, wish to block the building of power plants because of the waste heat problem and to ban the automobile before we have anything to take its place. We must, I think, morally attempt to bring to all people as many things to ease their lives as modern science and technology is capable of providing; but at the same time, we must bring them, and I am sure we can, a clean environment, now that their rising aspirations insist on this. Hopefully, people will be willing to pay for it. We must revise our vocabulary. For instance, tlhere is no such person as a consumer. We consume nothing, whether it be the food we eat, the automobiles we drive, or the hardware in our houses. We merely use things, and according to the law of conservation of matter, exactly the same mass of material is discarded after use. Thus, under our present system of mismanaging material after use, as the standard of living goes up, the amount of waste and consequent pollution must go up. In poor countries where things are scarce, there is very little waste, but the solution in any country is not to reduce the supply of things that people need in order to reduce waste. The object of the next industrial revolution is to ensure that there will be no such thing as waste, on the basis that waste is simply some substance that we do not yet have the wit to use. Industry and business, what some call the private sector, have only been asked to do half their job. They perform magnificent feats of scientific, technological and managerial skills to take things from the land or to grow them in the land, refine them, mass-manufacture, mass-market and mass-distribute them to the so-called consumer; who is nothing but a user. Then the same mass of material is left to the public sector to dispose of after use. By and large, in our society, the private sector makes the things before tise and for

Current status of geothermal power plants at the Geysers, Sonoma County, California

Electric power in commercial quantities from geothermal steam has been produced at The Geysers in Sonoma County, California, since 1960. Four steam turbine-generator units have been installed with rated capacities of 12,000 kW, 14,000 kW, 28,000 kW, and 28,000 kW for a total current production capacity of 82,000 kW. The last unit went into operation in 1968. Two more units of 55,000 kW capacity each are under construction for completion in 1971. More units are tentatively planned; their construction depends on the success of future drilling operations. Development at the Geysers started in 1922 when the first steam well was drilled. Eight wells were drilled from that date through 1925. However, commercial development was not feasible at that time. Some steam was used at an adjacent resort for heating and also, through use of two small reciprocating steam engine-generators, lighting was provided until 1959 when connection was made to the P. G. and E. system. Present development started with well drilling in 1955 and agreement for the first unit was reached between P. G. and E. and the steam developers in 1958 with the unit going into operation in 1960. Continued success in drilling, a total of fifty-two wells that has greatly enlarged the known boundaries of the steam field, has resulted in the installation of more units as described previously. Actually, the boundaries of the steam field at The Geysers have not yet been clearly determined. Several ⪡step-out⪢ wells, some distance removed from existing production areas, have been successful. The design of Units 1 through 4 is essentially the same although the size varies. Each unit includes a non-extraction, condensing turbine taking steam at 80 or 65 lb per square inch gauge, an exhaust duct leading to a barometric condenser located outside and above the turbine building, cooling tower supply pumps to move water from the condenser hotwell to an induced draft cooling tower, and condenser supply pumps to move water from the cooling tower basin to the condenser. Units 5 and 6, under construction, will be similar in design to the existing units except that the steam inlet pressure will be 100 psig and the condenser, while still in direct contact, will not be barometric but will be located under the turbine. There will be no condenser supply pumps, as the water will return from the cooling towers under vacuum. As the steam flow is greater than the cooling tower evaporation, there is excess water produced in the cycle which must be disposed of. As this water is contaminated, principally with ammonia, sulfides, and boron, its disposal presents a serious problem. Injection wells are currently being used for this purpose. The steam supply is slightly superheated and contains ammonia, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen sulfide as principal contaminants, amounting to 0.3% to 2.0% of the steam. These present corrosion problems to plant equipment, but have been dealt with by the proper selection of materials. The four units, which are located in two power plant buildings, are designed to run at constant load unattended. Operators and maintenance personnel are normally at the plant during eight hours in the daytime only. Electric power production at The Geysers has proven to be economical, and further development is to be expected if sufficient steam supply and reserves are developed.

Pioneer Methods in Salvage Anthropology

The development of Salvage Anthropology has been the direct result of the initiation of numerous large scale area development projects involving construction of reservoirs; building of power plants, roads, and transmission lines; the leveling of land for irrigation; etc. Associated with these projects has been the destruction of habitation sites and the movement of indigenous people. The methods developed to salvage anthropological information so threatened with destruction have been inextricably interwoven with the conditions imposed by the construction schedules and methods.

The Life of Building Power Plants

The Life of Building Power Plants