Turkey's Potential Research Articles

The Biomass Potential of Turkey for Energy Production: Part II

Biomass is the major source of energy in rural Turkey. Biomass is used to meet a variety of energy needs including generating electricity, heating homes, fueling vehicles and providing process heat for industrial facilities. Biomass potential includes wood, animal and plant wastes. Among the biomass energy sources, fuelwood seems to be the most interesting because its share of the total energy production of Turkey is high at 21%. The total biomass energy potential of Turkey is about 32 Mtoe. The amount of usable biomass potential of Turkey is approximately 17 Mtoe. The electrical production from usable biomass has a net impact of 4.4 billion USD in personal and corporate income and represents more than 160,000 jobs. There is a total 4 million ha of degraded coppice forests for energy forestry applications in Turkey. The improvement of degraded coppice forests is a very important activity, as important as forestation. Converting coppice forests into productive energy forests in order to meet continually-increasing fuel requirements in Turkey prevents the destruction of highly productive forests, thereby supplying more wood raw material for the forest industry, which at present operates with a low capacity. At the end of 2006, 623.247 ha of energy forest have been established.

Restructuring of Turkey’s electricity market and the share of hydropower energy: The case of the Eastern Black Sea Basin

This paper presents the historical development of Turkey’s electricity power sector, the efforts for introducing competition in the power industry in Turkey, and the concerns regarding restructuring in Turkey. The contribution of the hydropower energy potential in Turkey to the reconstruction of the electricity structure in Turkey is also investigated. Then, among the 25 hydrological basins in Turkey, the Eastern Black Sea Basin located in the northeast of Turkey, which has great advantages from the view point of small hydropower potential or hydropower potential without storage, is chosen as the case study to carry out some investigations concerning its potential and to analyze the contribution of the private sector (the corporate body) in regard to the development of hydro potential in this basin within the scope of the 4628 Electricity Market Law. With this law, concerning the restructuring of the electricity market, private sector investments in this segment have increased. In total, 1524 hydroelectric power projects with 22 360 MW installed capacity has been implemented until January 22nd, 2009 and this figure is continuously rising.

The Biomass Potential of Turkey for Energy Production: Part I

Biomass is the major source of energy in rural Turkey. Biomass is used to meet a variety of energy needs including generating electricity, heating homes, fueling vehicles and providing process heat for industrial facilities. Biomass potential includes wood, animal, and plant wastes. Among the biomass energy sources, fuelwood seems to be the most interesting because its share of the total energy production of Turkey is high at 21%. The total biomass energy potential of Turkey is about 32 Mtoe. The amount of usable biomass potential of Turkey is approximately 17 Mtoe. The electrical production from usable biomass has a net impact of 4.4 billion USD in personal and corporate income and represents more than 160,000 jobs. There is a total 4 million ha of degraded coppice forests for energy forestry applications in Turkey. The improvement of degraded coppice forests is a very important activity, as important as forestation. Converting coppice forests into productive energy forests in order to meet the continually-increasing fuel requirements in Turkey prevents the destruction of highly productive forests, therefore supplying more wood raw material for the forest industry, which at present operates with a low capacity. At the end of 2006, 623.247 ha of energy forest have been established.

Multi-criteria Axiomatic Design Approach to Evaluate Sites for Grid-connected Photovoltaic Power Plants: A Case Study in Turkey

Global warming and climate change are the most serious problems for developing countries as well as the world. Therefore, the usage of renewable energy sources is gaining importance for sustainable energy development and environmental protection. Turkey is one of the developing countries whose demand of electricity is sharply increasing. In order to meet this demand by means of renewable sources, solar power is a suitable source due to the high solar energy potential of Turkey among the renewable sources. In this article, the multi-criteria axiomatic design (AD) approach is proposed for the evaluation of sites for a grid-connected photovoltaic power plant (GCPP) in Turkey. For this aim, four evaluation criteria, which have great influence on determination of a GCPP site are taken into account.

An experimental study of the exergetic performance of an underground air tunnel system for greenhouse cooling

The present study highlights the exergetic performance characteristics of an underground air tunnel for greenhouse cooling with a 47 m horizontal, 56 cm nominal diameter U-bend buried galvanized ground heat exchanger. This system was designed and installed in the Solar Energy Institute, Ege University, Izmir, Turkey. Underground air tunnel systems, also known as earth-to-air heat exchangers, are recognized to be outstanding heating, cooling and air heating systems. On the other hand, they have not been used yet in the Turkish market. Greenhouses also have important economical potential in Turkey’s agricultural sector. Greenhouses should be cooled during the summer or hot days. In order to establish optimum growth conditions in greenhouses, renewable energy sources should be utilized as much as possible. It is expected that effective use of underground air tunnels with a suitable technology in the modern greenhouses will play a leading role in Turkey in the foreseeable future. The exergy transports between the components and the destructions in each of the components of the system are determined for the average measured parameters obtained from the experimental results. Exergetic efficiencies of the system components are determined in an attempt to assess their individual performances and the potential for improvements is also presented. The daily maximum cooling coefficient of performances (COP) values for the system are also obtained to be 15.8. The total average COP in the experimental period is found to be 10.09. The system COP was calculated based on the amount of cooling produced by the air tunnel and the amount of power required to move the air through the tunnel, while the exergetic efficiency of the air tunnel is found to be in a range among 57.8–63.2%. The overall exergy efficiency value for the system on a product/fuel basis is found to be 60.7%.

Contribution of the Southeastern Anatolia Project (GAP) to Irrigation and Hydroelectric Power Production in Turkey

The Southeastern Anatolia Project (GAP) is an integrated socioeconomic development project and one of the largest of its kind in the world. The GAP region is rich in water for irrigation and hydroelectric power. The Euphrates and Tigris rivers represent over 28% of the nation's water supply by, and the economically irrigable areas in the region make up 20% of those for the entire country. Turkey has a total gross hydropower potential of 433 GWh/yr, but only 125 GWh/yr of the total hydroelectric potential of Turkey can be economically used. By the commissioning of new hydropower plants, which are under construction, 36% of the economically usable potential of the country would be tapped. The GAP region has a 22% share of the country's total hydroelectric potential, with plans for 22 dams and 19 hydroelectric power plants. Upon the completion of the project, 1.7 million ha of land will be brought under irrigation, energy production in the region will reach 27 billion kWh, per capita income will rise by 209% and about 3.8 million people will be provided employment opportunities. This article discusses the contribution of the GAP to irrigation and hydroelectric power production in Turkey.

Fuel Wood as a Source of Energy in Turkey

Biomass is the major source of energy in rural Turkey. Among the biomass energy sources, fuelwood seems to be the most interesting because its share of the total energy production of Turkey is high at 21%. The total biomass energy potential of Turkey is about 32 Mtoe. The amount of usable biomass potential of Turkey is approximately 17 Mtoe. The electrical production from usable biomass has a net impact of 4.4 billion USD in personal and corporate income and represents more than 160,000 jobs. The objective of the energy forestry policy in Turkey is to create circumstances that support both economic and employment policies, using economic and market mechanisms. These circumstances should ensure availability of energy, keep the price of energy competitive, and enable Turkey to meet international commitments with respect to emissions to the environment. From 1978 to 2006, energy forest activities with coppice regeneration were undertaken on 623,247 hectares. A further objective is to expetide development and commercialization of energy-saving technologies and those based on use of wood as a renewable energy source. A spesific goal is to increase use of wood for energy generation so as to make it an important fuel at district heating plants and at combined heat and power generation plants in locations where natural coppice forests are available.

Present Coal Potential of Turkey and Coal Usage in Electricity Generation

Total coal reserve (hard coal + lignite) in the world is 984 billion tons. While hard coal constitutes 52% of the total reserve, lignite constitutes 48% of it. Turkey has only 0.1% of world hard coal reserve and 1.5% of world lignite reserves. Turkey has 9th order in lignite reserve, 8th order in lignite production, and 12th order in total coal (hard coal and lignite) consumption. While hard coal production meets only 13% of its consumption, lignite production meets lignite consumption in Turkey. Sixty-five percent of produced hard coal and 78% of produced lignite are used for electricity generation. Lignites are generally used for electricity generation due to their low quality. As of 2003, total installed capacity of Turkey was 35,587 MW, 19% (6,774 MW) of which is produced from coal-based thermal power plants. Recently, use of natural gas in electricity generation has increased. While the share of coal in electricity generation was about 50% for 1986, it is replaced by natural gas today.

Space as a strategic vision for Turkey and its people

Turkey entered the 21st century making increasing efforts towards rapid economic and technological development, social change and renewal of its infrastructure. Naturally this process places a heavy load on the current system and it affects every section of society at various rates. Turkey must get involved in new areas in order to continue its development progress by minimizing such effects. One of these new areas is space, which has become an important tool for protecting and improving civilization and is a strategic expression of Turkey's future. This article outlines Turkey's potential in space activities, considers the current situation of space activities in the country and shows their evolution over 20 years with a view to identifying promising developments. Turkey is actively determining the necessary policies to allow future generations to compete in the international arena in the long term. But Turkey must also clarify what sort of space organization model it wants to pursue.

Generation of Typical Solar Radiation Year for Mediterranean Region of Turkey

Typical solar radiation data is very important for the calculations concerning many solar applications. In this study, typical solar radiation years for six provinces located in the Mediterranean region of Turkey are generated from the daily global solar radiation data measured at least for 14 years, using the Finkelstein-Schafer statistical method. The typical daily global solar radiation data for the locations considered is presented throughout a year in a tabular form. The data obtained is also analyzed. It is expected that the typical data presented for the Mediterranean region, which is rich for solar energy potential in Turkey, will be useful to the designers of solar energy systems.

Fossil Fuel Potential of Turkey: A Statistical Evaluation of Reserves, Production, and Consumption

Since Turkey is a developing country with tremendous economic growth, its energy demand is also getting increased. Of this energy, about 70% is supplied from fossil fuels and the remaining 30% is from renewable sources. Among the fossil fuels, 90% of oil, natural gas, and coal are imported, and only 10% is from domestic sources. All the lignite is supplied from domestic sources. The total share of renewable sources and lignite in the total energy production is 45%. In order for Turkey to have sufficient and reliable energy sources, first the renewable energy sources must be developed, and energy production from fossil fuels, except for lignite, must be minimized. Particularly, scarcity of fossil fuels and increasing oil prices have a strong effect on economic growth of the country.

Electricity restructuring in Turkey and the share of wind energy production

This paper presents the current status of Turkey's electricity power sector, efforts for introducing competition in the Turkey's power industry, and concerns with the restructuring in Turkey. Turkey include long-term high-cost agreements, low quality of power, and therefore restrictions for synchronization with UCTE network, increase in the reliance on imported natural gas, and the urgent need for highly qualified staff that would be capable of fast and reliable implementation of ongoing reforms in the electricity sector. The contribution of the exploiting wind energy potential in Turkey to reconstruction of Turkey electricity structure is investigated. The strong development of wind energy in Turkey is expected to continue in the coming years.

Turkey's Biogas Energy Potential

As in the rest of the world, in Turkey it is necessary to utilize the renewable energy sources to make up for the increasing energy deficit. As an alternative to these energy sources, the use of biogas seems possible. Even when it is considered only with regards to the animal husbandry sector, the majority of the manure obtained is a problem for the farms, and cannot be used efficiently. Considering that the energy value of 1 m3 of biogas is 5,000 kJ, and that the heat value is equivalent to 0.7 liters of gas, we see a large amount of lost energy. Besides, we must not overlook its contributions to the environment, and the value of manure. In this study, according to 2004 values, the biogas potential of Turkey has been found as 3 billion m3/yr, only when manure is taken into account. However, the fact that sufficient biogas generators cannot be established or operated much in Turkey reveals that currently this potential is not used. Furthermore, taking into account plant and animal remains as well, there is a significant loss. In order for biogas to be used as a source of alternative energy in Turkey, the need for building biogas generators with suitable technology in the regions relevant in the economic and rational sense has been emphasized. Incentives and supports have to be given for this purpose. Besides, agricultural extension agencies have to inform farmers and promote and cause the adoption of biogas energy. Animal husbandry and biogas extension must be included in the agricultural extension efforts.

Agricultural and Economic Potential of Biodiesel in Turkey

This study was based on two essential considerations about biodiesel: agricultural potential of Turkey for biodiesel production and governmental policies about environmentally friendly alternative fuels in Turkey. A policy to increase biodiesel production in Turkey by importing biodiesel or shifting to oilseed production from another plant does not seem reliable or practical. However, a short analysis on growing oil plants as a secondary product gives promising results. Even in this case, however, investment for biodiesel production is risky from the standpoint of market prices in comparison with regular diesel, given the government's unstable task policies. For the same reason, it is difficult to forward a scientific analysis as guidance to the investor for biodiesel production.

Integrated approach for water resources and irrigation management in Turkey

: Water, which is a key input for life and cannot be substituted for many of its functions, has economic as well as social and cultural values. Water demand is being increased due to growing population and scarce resources and increasing competition among water‐using sectors is being aggravated, globally. Meeting the needs for food in the future is under risk due to non‐uniform distribution of water resources all over the world, increasing competition for decreasing water resources, system performances far from expected, inefficient and uneconomic use of water in irrigation, and continuity of problematic trend. The situation will motivate a new approach, which treats water resources management as integrated, based on economic efficiency and the functions of conventional water resources management practices should be inquired. Food security for the future will always depend on population stability, sustainability in economic and social development, and integrated water resources management (IWRM) strategies. The annual per capita water potential in Turkey is currently 1,700 m3 but is expected to be reduced to 1,000 m3 by the year 2020. Thus Turkey cannot be considered a “water‐rich” country. Agriculture is the largest user of water in Turkey like most of the countries, demanding almost 70 % of the total amount withdrawn. The major systematic aspect of water related activities in Turkey is central planning. Existing planning approach is set on demand on project‐scale, long‐term goals are not considered mostly. The applicability of IWRM in Turkey depends on strong assessment of environmental aspects of water resources projects, the application of demand‐driven management techniques rather than supply management, efficient use of economic instruments in the process

CONTRACTIONARY DEVALUATION HYPOTHESIS: AN APPLICATION TO TURKEY

In this paper we have empirically investigated the validity of the contractionary devaluation hypothesis in Turkey by using tlie Structural VAR methodology developed by Bernanke (1986). The model used in this study shows that contrary to conventional wisdom, real depreciations have contractionary effects on output. Persistent devaluations have led to high inflation and economic contraction in Turkey. For that reason we have reached the conclusion that foreign trade policy based on the persistent devaluation of real exchange rate will not be efficient to increase export potential of Turkey. Evidences obtained from variance decompositions and impulse response functions imply that tfiere is a very strong pass-through from real exchange rate to inflation. This finding also point out the substantial risks to keep the exchange rate at a competitive level. As a result permanent real devaluation may not be successful unless it is accompanied by appropriate monetary and fiscal policies.

Trends in the Use of Biomass as an Energy Source

In this study, biomass sources were investigated. In recent years, many attempts have been made to utilize biomass, such as wood, hazelnut shell, agricultural waste residues, waste paper and wheat straw, tea waste, and olive husk. The amount of annual biomass potential of Turkey is approximately 32 million tons of oil equivalent (mtoe) and domestic energy consumption accounts for about 37% of total energy consumption. Of this, about 52% are from biomass-based fuels. The amount of usable biomass potential of Turkey is approximately 17 Mtoe. Electrical production from usable biomass has a net impact of $4.4 billion in personal and corporate income and represented more than 160,000 jobs.

Biomass-Based Combined Heat and Power Systems

This study aims to identify and evaluate the biomass utilization options and evaluate the sustainable biomass production for combined heat and power (CHP) in Turkey. The total biomass energy potential of Turkey is about 32 Mtoe. The amount of usable biomass potential of Turkey is approximately 17 Mtoe. Among the biomass energy sources, fuel wood seems to be one of the most interesting because its share of the total energy production of Turkey is high at 21%. The use of biofuels for CHP on a large scale is focused mainly on forest industry sites, where considerable quantities of biomass are available. Biomass available for energy can be converted to different types of final energy (e.g., electricity, heat), of these, the production of electricity appears to be particularly important. While CHP provides several environmental benefits by making use of waste heat and waste products, air pollution is a concern any time fossil fuels or biomass are burned.

Small Hydropower Plants as a New and Renewable Energy Source

The inherent technical, economic, and environmental benefits of hydroelectric power make it an important contributor to the future world energy mix, particularly in the developing countries. Technically feasible hydropower estimated at nearly 15,000 TWh/yr still exists in the world today, mostly in countries where increased power supplies from clean and renewable sources are most urgently needed to progress social and economic development. This article deals with policies to meet increasing energy demand for electricity and domestic heating in Turkey. Air-pollutant emissions due to power generation and their harmful effects on the environment are also presented. We also argue in favor of small-scale dams for sustainable development. Turkey has a total gross hydropower potential of 433 GWh/yr, but only 125 GWh/yr of the total hydroelectric potential of Turkey can be economically used. By the commissioning of new hydropower plants, which are under construction, 36% of the economically usable potential of the country would be tapped. On the other hand, Turkey's total economically usable small hydropower potential is 3.75 GWh/yr.

Energy Exploitation of Agricultural Biomass Potential in Turkey

The objective of this study is to determine the agricultural biomass potential in terms of types, quantities, regional distribution in Turkey and to review and assess efficient technologies for energy exploitation of agricultural biomass potential in Turkey. The calorific values of a selection of agricultural residues were determined by stoichiometric analyses. It was found that the total calorific value of the field crop residues was around 228 PJ for the production period of 2002–2003 in Turkey. The major crops that take place in the ratio of the total calorific value are maize (33.4%), wheat (27.6%), and cotton (18.1%). The total calorific value of the fruit residue was 75 PJ. The major fruits are hazelnut (55.8%) and olive (25.9%) for the agricultural biomass. The total calorific values for cow, sheep and poultry wastes in Turkey were found to be approximately 47.8, 3.6 and 8.7 PJ/year, respectively. Thus, the total agricultural biomass potential was found to be approximately 363.1 PJ/year for the production period of 2002–2003 in Turkey. The available agricultural and animal residues in Turkey have been estimated to be roughly equal to 22–27 % of energy consumption in Turkey. However, the actual role of bio-fuels in energy production is minimal. The most efficient way to utilize bio-fuels in energy production is combined heat and power (CHP) production. The most potential applications to utilize agro-bio-fuels in energy production in Turkey seem to be relatively small-scale applications. The most interesting size of the plant is below 10–20 MW.