Posttraumatic Cognitions Research Articles

The Impact of Child Abuse, Posttraumatic Cognitions, Machiavellianism and Emotional Suppression on Interpersonal Sensitivity and Psychiatric Comorbidity: A Latent Profile Analysis

ABSTRACT Much of the detrimental effects child abuse can have on victims’ cognitions, personality traits and emotional regulation strategies have been documented; however, it is unclear whether these effects might coexist with posttraumatic cognitions, Machiavellianism, and emotional suppression to impact interpersonal sensitivity and psychiatric comorbidity. The present study aimed to address this knowledge gap. A sample of 553 Chinese university students from three universities completed the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire-short form, Posttraumatic Cognitions Inventory, Machiavellianism Personality scale, Courtauld Emotional Control Scale, Interpersonal Sensitivity Measure, and General Health Questionnaire-28. Using Latent Profile Analysis, a three-profile solution was achieved. Profile one (high maltreatment group) students reported high levels of abusive experiences, posttraumatic cognitions and Machiavellianism, but a moderate level of emotional suppression; Profile two (moderate maltreatment group) students had moderate levels of abusive experiences, posttraumatic cognitions, Machiavellianism and emotional suppression. Profile three (low maltreatment group) students had low levels of all of the preceding psychological constructs. Profile one reported significantly higher interpersonal sensitivity and psychiatric comorbidity. Students with child abuse experiences, who viewed themselves and others negatively, displayed some dark personality traits, exercised some control over their emotions, tended to be excessively sensitive to others’ behaviors and feelings and prone to psychological distress.

The role of social connectedness in buffering the effects of discrimination on post-trauma cognitions in forcibly displaced Muslims.

Among trauma-exposed, forcibly displaced Muslims, very little is known about how social connectedness, or perceived interpersonal connection and belonging, may alter the relationship between discrimination and negative posttraumatic cognitions. Discrimination may aggravate trauma psychopathology (Helms et al., 2010); however, social connectedness may buffer its negative effects (Juang & Alvarez, 2010). We examined whether higher religious and racial/ethnic discrimination would be associated with stronger negative posttraumatic cognitions and whether stronger social connectedness may adaptively buffer this relationship. Trauma exposed individuals (N = 99) who identified as Muslim and as a refugee, asylum seeker, or internally displaced person participated in the study. Measures of discrimination, social connection, and posttraumatic cognitions were completed. Higher discrimination was moderately associated with stronger negative trauma-related cognitions (r = .40, p < .001) and with lower social connectedness (r = -.32, p = .001). Social connectedness moderated the relationship between discrimination and posttraumatic cognitions, such that at lower levels of social connectedness there was a stronger relationship between discrimination and posttraumatic cognitions (-2SD: b = .32, -1SD: b = .23, M: b = .14), this was not present at higher levels of social connectedness. Connectedness to one's minority group may be an important protective factor by modulating the effects of discrimination on posttrauma adjustment. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Mental health service utilization following a campus mass shooting: The role of preshooting emotion dysregulation and posttraumatic cognitions.

This study investigated preshooting emotion dysregulation and posttraumatic cognitions as predictors of mental health service utilization ([MHU]; i.e., therapy/medication) among undergraduate women following a campus mass shooting, controlling for time, age, and postshooting posttraumatic stress (PTS) and depressive symptoms. Undergraduate women (N = 483, Mage = 19.23, SD = 2.39) were engaged in a study when a mass shooting occurred on Northern Illinois University's campus. A separate, longitudinal study was then implemented to monitor postshooting adjustment among these same women. The present study examined predictors of MHU using data from the preshooting assessment and the following postshooting timepoints: 9 months (T1; n = 416); 14 months (T2; n = 416); 20 months (T3; n = 417); 26 months (T4; n = 405); and 33 months (T5; n = 397). Multilevel models showed preshooting emotion dysregulation and postshooting PTS and depressive symptoms positively predicted increased likelihood of MHU while controlling for covariates. Posttraumatic cognitions initially predicted increased therapy utilization, but this relationship became nonsignificant after accounting for preshooting emotion dysregulation. Preshooting emotion dysregulation also weakened the positive relationship between depressive symptoms and therapy utilization and strengthened the positive relationship between age and therapy utilization. Preshooting emotion dysregulation and postshooting mental health symptoms were the most robust predictors of increased MHU following a mass shooting. Findings suggest women exposed to a mass shooting engage in treatment when needed, but preexisting emotion dysregulation may serve as a barrier for those who go on to develop depression. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Betrayal trauma, dissociative experiences, and posttrauma cognitions among women in a state shelter home

Context: There is a long history of interpersonal trauma in women, and the risk factors and mental health consequences have been well studied. Betrayal trauma (BT) theory by Freyd talks about the specific kind of trauma perpetrated by someone close to the victim, which may lead to increased dissociative responses. Recent research extends the theory to explain the role of posttrauma appraisals playing a mediating role in the development of psychopathological responses.Aim: The aim of this study was to explore trauma history, BT, and dissociative experiences among women in a Government Reception Centre.Setting: The sample included 30 women from the Reception Centre, Bangalore.Subjects and Methods: Data were obtained using a Sociodemographic Data Sheet, Brief BT Survey (revised), the Dissociative Experiences Scale, Posttrauma Cognitions Inventory and a visual analog scale for assessing psychological distress.Statistical Analysis Used: Descriptive statistics and nonparametric inferential statistics were used for quantitative analysis.Results: All the women in the sample had experienced BT directly or as witnesses. There was no significant difference in dissociation between high- and low-BT groups. The presence of negative cognitions toward oneself was associated with increased dissociative experiences. Negative cognitions toward self and depersonalization experiences were higher in the group with severe physical trauma than the group without.Conclusion: The article highlights the high prevalence of betrayal trauma, and risk for trauma-related psychopathology and revictimization that go unassessed in government shelter homes, while reiterating the need for a trauma-informed care approach to intervention.

Mental health of unaccompanied refugee minors in Greece living "in limbo".

The closure of the Balkan migration route in 2016, had implications for unaccompanied refugee minors (URMs), given that the vast majority, who perceived Greece as "stopover" for their desired final destination, were forced to remain in the country for an indeterminate period of time. This created for URMs a challenging situation of living "in limbo" uncertain about their future awaiting for a long time the outcome of their asylum application. This cross-sectional study aimed to explore the mental health of URMs, who arrived in Greece in 2016. The sample comprised 90 URMs (76 boys), aged 13-17 years, consisting of 46 Syrians and 44 originating from other countries. Participants completed socio-demographic information and a range of clinical measures, including Children's Revised Impact of Events Scale (CRIES), Depression Self-Rating Scale (DSRS), Children's Post-Traumatic Cognitions Inventory (cPTCI), a measure of trauma exposure and perceived social support. Syrian URMs were significantly more likely than URMs originating from other countries to score within the probable clinical depression range (71.7% versus 47.7% respectively, p=0.020), to display probable posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), i.e., score within clinically significant range of posttraumatic stress symptoms and negative post-trauma cognitions (87% versus 65.9%, p=0.018), and meet the comorbidity PTSD/depression criterion (65.2% versus 40.9%, p=0.021). Multiple linear stepwise regression analyses showed that legal status (seeking asylum in Europe through family reunification procedure) significantly predicted higher levels of depressive symptoms (β=0.29, p=0.004), posttraumatic stress symptoms (β=0.21, p=0.034) and negative cognitions (β=0.33, p=0.001). The total number of stressful/traumatic experiences and male gender were found to be significantly related only with posttraumatic symptoms severity score (β=0.29, p=0.003), whereas lower levels of perceived social support were associated with increased levels of depressive symptoms (β=0.24, p=0.018) and negative cognitions and appraisals of the world and the self (β=0.26, p=0.008). These findings highlight the burden of living "in limbo" situation and add weight to the argument for amending restrictive EU asylum policies and accelerating the family reunification procedure under Dublin-III Regulation, as well as the pressing need for improved URMs access to mental health services and psychosocial support.

The Evolutionary Development of Jungian Advanced Motor Processing&amp;lt;sup&amp;gt;&amp;amp;copy;&amp;lt;/sup&amp;gt; (JAMP&amp;lt;sup&amp;gt;&amp;amp;copy;&amp;lt;/sup&amp;gt;)

Inspired by the need for fast, effective mental health treatment that is not readily available to the average person, in the midst of the pandemic crisis, Jungian Advanced Motor Processing© (JAMP©) was created by Dr. Lahab Al-Samarrai [1]. JAMP© treatment goes into what Carl Jung called “complexes” and manoeuvers within them to retrieve shards of traumatic emotional content without activating the core of the complex, converting emotions that have not been processed and understood into processed and integrated thoughts. Jungian Advanced Motor Processing© [1] treatment carefully infuses these factors to successfully integrate its transformational methods into an individual. Complexes are created as a response to a traumatic experience, and typically trap an individual into dysfunctional emotional responses whenever the complex is activated by a new experience that triggers the complex into action. Activated complexes drain energy from an individual, leaving one feeling emptiness and anger and/or reacting to new experiences that activate them in dysfunctional ways. The bilateral stimulation that is used in the JAMP© treatment helps calm down the nervous system, letting the JAMP© practitioner work with material that is not readily accessible to the conscious mind. JAMP© is able to reach into the unconscious without activating the complex’s primary defences, thus helping reorient an individual’s emotional reaction to past trauma. Affirmations used in the treatment help integrate the sense of calmness and security within the individual, soothing the overly active sympathetic nervous system response and therefore reducing the stress levels within the traumatised individual as they remember the traumatic event. The treatment’s progress has been monitored and quantitatively tracked using three different scales: Adverse Childhood Experience (ACE), The Posttraumatic Cognitions Inventory (PTCI), and Somatic Symptom Scale (SSS). Looking at the ratings on each scale both before and after treatment helps highlight the vast benefits of this evolved treatment to address emotional trauma.

The Role of Posttraumatic Cognitions in Integrated Treatments for Co-Occurring Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Alcohol Use Disorder

The Role of Posttraumatic Cognitions in Integrated Treatments for Co-Occurring Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Alcohol Use Disorder

Supplemental Material for Do Older Veterans Experience Change in Posttraumatic Cognitions Following Treatment for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder?

Supplemental Material for Do Older Veterans Experience Change in Posttraumatic Cognitions Following Treatment for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder?

Secondary individual outcomes following multicouple group therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder: An uncontrolled pilot study with military dyads.

Cognitive-behavioral conjoint therapy (CBCT) for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) has demonstrated efficacy for improving PTSD and comorbid symptoms and relationship adjustment. To enhance treatment efficiency and scalability, we developed a 2-day, abbreviated, intensive, multicouple group version of CBCT for PTSD (AIM-CBCT for PTSD). Prior work demonstrated that AIM-CBCT for PTSD wasassociated with reductions in PTSD and comorbid symptoms in a sample of 24 post-9/11 active duty military or veteran couples who received the treatment in a retreat format over a single weekend. The current study investigated secondary outcomes regarding trauma-related cognitions, psychosocial impairment, and insomnia. For trauma-related cognitions, reductions were nonsignificant and small at 1-month follow-up, ds = -0.14 to -0.32. However, by 3-month follow-up, there were significant, medium effect size reductions in total trauma-related cognitions, d = -0.68, and negative views of self and others, ds = -0.64 and -0.57, respectively, relative to baseline. There was also a nonsignificant, small-to-medium effect-size reduction in self-blame, d = -0.43, p = .053, by 3-month follow-up. For psychosocial impairment, there were significant and medium-to-large and large effect size reductions by 1- and 3-month follow-ups, ds = -0.73 and -0.81, respectively. There were nonsignificant, small effect size reductions in insomnia at both 1- and 3-month follow-ups relative to baseline, ds = -0.30 and -0.34, respectively. These findings suggest that AIM-CBCT for PTSD is associated with reductions in maladaptive posttraumatic cognitions and psychosocial impairment but that adjunctive interventions may be needed to address insomnia.

Comparing Veterans with Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Related to Military Sexual Trauma or Other Trauma Types: Baseline Characteristics and Residential Cognitive Processing Therapy Outcomes.

The Veterans Health Administration (VHA) has called for improved assessment and intervention for survivors of military sexual trauma (MST) to mitigate deleterious sequalae, including posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Research on the impact of MST-related PTSD (MST-IT) on men is limited, and few studies have examined the differential effects of treatment across genders and MST-IT. Additionally, studies have utilized varying definitions of MST (e.g., sexual assault only vs. including sexual harassment), contributing to disparate outcomes across studies. Utilizing data from 343 veterans seeking residential cognitive processing therapy (CPT) for PTSD in VHA, this study examined the impact of MST-IT and gender on differences in demographic characteristics; pre-treatment severity of PTSD (overall and clusters), depression, and negative posttraumatic cognitions (NPCs); and post-treatment severity of these variables after accounting for pre-treatment severity. Results from 2x2 factorial ANOVAs found no differences in pre-treatment depression or overall PTSD by MST-IT, gender, or their interaction; however, MST-IT survivors presented with greater pre-treatment avoidance, global NPCs, and self-blame. Results from hierarchical linear regression models found only pre-treatment symptom severity significantly predicted post-treatment severity for overall PTSD and all NPCs. These findings suggest veteran survivors of MST-IT appear to benefit similarly from CPT delivered in a VHA residential PTSD program compared to veterans with other index traumas, regardless of gender. Although there were minimal post-treatment differences in PTSD and NPCs by MST-IT status and gender, residual symptoms related to negative cognitions and mood appear to differ across gender and MST-IT status. Specifically, in individuals without MST-IT, post-treatment PTSD symptoms of negative alterations in cognition and mood were higher in men than women. Moreover, women with MST-IT reported more symptoms of depression than both men with MST-IT and women without MST-IT. These findings suggest depressive symptoms decrease through residential PTSD treatment differentially by MST-IT status and gender and warrant further examination.

Post-traumatic Stress Symptoms in Adolescents Exposed to the Earthquake in Lombok, Indonesia: Prevalence and Association With Maladaptive Trauma-Related Cognition and Resilience.

Background: Natural disasters may physically and psychologically affect individuals and their surrounding community. This study determines the prevalence of post-traumatic stress (PTS) symptoms and its association with maladaptive trauma-related cognition and resilience among adolescents post-earthquake.Materials and Methods: Data were collected, in this cross-sectional study, during an intervention program post-earthquake held in a state high school located at Lombok, Indonesia. The study sample engaged students 14–19 years of age using the purposive sampling method. The questionnaires used to measure PTS symptoms, maladaptive trauma-related cognition, and resilience were Children's Revised Impact of Event Scale-13 (CRIES-13), Child Post-Traumatic Cognitions Inventory (CPTCI), and Child and Youth Resilience Measure-Revised (CYRM-R), respectively.Results: The prevalence of PTS symptoms was 69.9%. Among the respondents, 61.37% were female and 56.48% had mothers with lower educational levels. Using multiple linear regression, the final predictors of PTS symptoms were excessive reactions (e.g., wailing loudly, miserable shrieking) of proxy during earthquake (β = 3.283, p = 0.005), maladaptive trauma-related cognition (β = 0.224, p = 0.002), and resilience (β = 0.192, p < 0.001) with female gender (β = 7.350, p < 0.001) as a control variable. Through simple linear regression, victims who witnessed injury or death during the earthquake (p = 0.003), had a proxy died during the earthquake (p = 0.01), and trapped victims or those who had difficulty escaping (p = 0.01) were identified to potentially predict the occurrence of PTS symptoms, warranting further study.Conclusion: The presence of excessive proxy reactions during the earthquake, maladaptive trauma-related cognition, and resilience in adolescents exposed to a natural disaster are worth targeting and prioritizing in future post-disaster interventions.

Reappraisal Bias and Sexual Victimization: Testing the Utility of a Computerized Intervention for Negative Post-Assault Support Experiences.

Women are at notable risk for negative reactions from others following sexual victimization which serve to intensify negative post-traumatic outcomes. The current study tested the effectiveness of cognitive bias modification-appraisal (CBM-App) training targeting post-traumatic cognitions theorized to be impacted by positive and negative social support with 45 female undergraduates, grouped by experiencing overall positive or negative post-assault support. Whereas all participants experienced improvements in post-traumatic cognitions at 1-week follow-up, a crossover effect for intrusion symptoms was found; CBM-App training reduced intrusions in participants with negative support experiences yet increased intrusions in participants with positive support experiences. While findings highlight the need for careful selection of post-trauma interventions, the study is the first to integrate findings from CBM-App, sexual assault, and social support literature. Socially relevant post-traumatic cognitions appear to be malleable and may be an important focus of treatment for survivors who experienced negative post-assault support.

Cultural Considerations in the Treatment of Latina Survivors of Sexual Assault

The current review examines existing research investigating the impact of Latino cultural values on decisions to disclose, reactions to disclosures, help-seeking behaviors, and victim-blaming among Latina survivors of sexual assault (SA). These findings were used to identify culturally based, problematic beliefs about SA in the Latino community that can be internalized and thus contribute to the development of maladaptive posttraumatic cognitions for Latina survivors. Understanding values that are prevalent in the Latino community can help clinicians identify rigid applications that maintain cognitive distortions surrounding SA. Therefore, the current review provides a synthesis of research on cultural influences impacting posttraumatic cognitions for Latina survivors of SA and examines implications for culturally informed practice and research.

Supplemental Material for Resilience Predicts Posttraumatic Cognitions After a Trauma Reminder Task and Subsequent Positive Emotion Induction Among Veterans With PTSD

Supplemental Material for Resilience Predicts Posttraumatic Cognitions After a Trauma Reminder Task and Subsequent Positive Emotion Induction Among Veterans With PTSD

Influence of Personality Traits on Post-Traumatic Cognitions of Sexual Assault

ABSTRACT Sexual assault is a common form of trauma that is associated with psychological distress for many people who experience it. One factor that influences the degree to which sexual assault survivors exhibit distress is the cognitions they form related to the assault in its aftermath. The more times the assault happens, the more disruptive are the post-traumatic cognitions, although both the frequency of sexual assault and nature of post-traumatic cognitions differ by gender. Another factor that may influence post-traumatic cognitions is personality, which emerging research suggests has an influence on post-traumatic response in general and post-traumatic cognitions in particular. However, there is little research on the influence of personality on post-traumatic cognitions related to sexual assault specifically. In this study, we examine the association between personality traits (Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Neuroticism, and Openness) and post-traumatic cognitions of sexual assault in a sample of sexual assault survivors recruited from Amazon’s Mechanical Turk (N = 303) using a Bayesian approach to multiple regression. Results suggest that although the influence of traits varied depending on the post-traumatic cognition under analysis and the sex of the sexual assault survivor, Neuroticism was the primary predictor of post-traumatic cognitions over and above sexual assault frequency, although this applied more for men than for women. Study findings clarify previous research on the role of personality traits in post-traumatic response and suggest directions for future research and clinical intervention.

Negative Posttraumatic Cognitions Color the Pathway from Event Centrality to Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Symptoms

BackgroundThe centrality of an event indicates the extent to which it becomes a core part of identity and life story. Event centrality (EC) has been shown to have a strong relationship with PTSD symptoms, which seems to be indirectly influenced by negative posttraumatic cognitions (PTC). However, research on this potential mediation and its causal links particularly with clinical samples is limited and essential to derive treatment implications.MethodsPre- and posttreatment data of 103 day-unit patients with PTSD was examined using mediation analyses and structural equation modeling.ResultsNegative PTC mediated the relationship between EC and PTSD symptoms, partially pre- and completely posttreatment. Within extended longitudinal analyses causal directions of the mediation pathways were not adequately interpretable due to unexpected suppression effects.ConclusionsThe results suggest that EC may only have an indirect effect on PTSD symptoms through negative PTC. Thus, decreasing negative PTC which are connected to centralized events might be a key element for PTSD treatment. Thereby, transforming the cognitions’ valence to more positive and constructive forms could be crucial rather than mere decentralization. Although suppression effects limited causal inferences, they do not contradict the mediation and further indicate potential interactional terms and a transformation of EC.

Treatment response trajectories in a three-week CPT-Based intensive treatment for veterans with PTSD

Response to weekly evidence-based PTSD treatments varies. Little is known about response trajectories and predictors in intensive PTSD treatments. This study sought to identify different trajectories of symptom change among veterans who completed a 3-week CPT-based intensive PTSD treatment program and examined potential predictors of trajectory group membership. Four hundred fifty-two veterans completed the program. Demographics, PTSD and depression severity, negative posttrauma cognitions, and alcohol use were assessed at intake and evaluated as possible predictors of group membership. Group based trajectory modeling was used to determine distinct groups based on PTSD symptom trajectory over the course of treatment, as well as predictors of group membership. Four distinct treatment trajectories were identified: Fast responders (15.3%), steady responders (32.0%), partial responders (38.4%), and minimal responders (14.4%). Fast and steady responders reported substantial symptom reductions and dropped below the “probable PTSD” threshold, with fast responders achieving improvements after just one week of treatment. Partial responders experienced clinically significant reductions but remained above the “probable PTSD” threshold. Minimal responders reported the highest baseline PTSD symptoms and changed the least throughout treatment. Negative posttrauma cognitions as well as self-reported and clinician-rated PTSD symptom severity assessed at intake successfully predicted trajectory membership. The identified trajectories closely resemble findings in the limited existing literature on intensive PTSD treatment trajectories. Results suggest that some individuals may improve with even shorter interventions and others might benefit from additional treatment sessions. Overall, findings support the importance of evaluating individual- and group-level treatment responses.

Development and validation of the Functional Posttraumatic Cognitions Questionnaire (FPTCQ) in children and adolescents exposed to accidental trauma.

Cognitive models of posttraumatic stress disorder highlight posttraumatic cognitions (PTCs) as a crucial mechanism of trauma adjustment. So far, only dysfunctional PTCs have been investigated in detail. Research on functional PTCs is scarce. This study addresses this gap by developing and validating a self-report measure called Functional Posttraumatic Cognitions Questionnaire (FPTCQ) in children and adolescents. The questionnaire was administered to 114 children and adolescents aged 7 to 15 years who had experienced an acute accidental potentially traumatic event, such as a road traffic accident or a burn injury, and as a result received medical treatment. In addition to classical item analysis and exploratory factor analysis, reliability and construct validity of the FPTCQ were investigated. The exploratory factor analysis revealed a one-factor structure of the FPTCQ. The final 11-item questionnaire displayed satisfactory internal consistency (Cronbach's α = .78), irrespective of age. Functional PTCs were inversely related to dysfunctional PTCs, r = -.44, p < .001, posttraumatic stress symptoms, r = -.35, p < .001, depression symptoms, r = -.22, p < .05, and anxiety symptoms, r = -.43, p < .001, thus supporting construct validity. The FPTCQ is a reliable and valid measure for standardized assessment of functional PTCs among children and adolescents. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Associations between relationship quality, social network resources, appraisals, coping, and posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms.

Objective: This study aimed to explore whether posttrauma cognitions and maladaptive coping strategies mediated the association between perceived social support (availability of social network and quality of specific relationships) and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms. Method: A community sample of trauma survivors (N = 67, 84% female) completed self-report measures assessing relationship quality, perceived availability of social network support, PTSD symptoms, negative posttrauma appraisals and maladaptive coping strategies. Results: Posttrauma appraisals mediated the association between quality of relationships (support, conflict and depth) and PTSD symptoms, and between availability of social network support and PTSD symptoms. Further, there was an indirect pathway between social support (quality of relationship and availability of social network) and PTSD symptoms through negative cognitive appraisals and maladaptive coping strategies (serial mediation). Conclusions: Our results are consistent with theoretical predictions that socially supportive (support, depth and social network availability) and unsupportive (conflict) relationships are associated with PTSD, through cognitive appraisal and coping processes. Clinical implications for further integrating interpersonal support into cognitive therapies were discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Supplemental Material for Mental Health Service Utilization Following a Campus Mass Shooting: The Role of Preshooting Emotion Dysregulation and Posttraumatic Cognitions

Supplemental Material for Mental Health Service Utilization Following a Campus Mass Shooting: The Role of Preshooting Emotion Dysregulation and Posttraumatic Cognitions