post-Soviet Research Articles

Refocusing education: understanding higher education institutions’ needs for human resource development in Azerbaijan

ABSTRACT Research on the capacity of universities to produce skilled graduates in developing post-Soviet countries is limited. It was reported that innovative companies in Azerbaijan face challenges in recruiting university graduates with the necessary cognitive and technical abilities. Referring to the perspectives of faculty members, university leaders and representatives of the Ministry of Science and Education, the current study explored the factors that were thought to influence the capacity of universities to develop human resources for the modernizing labour market. The study's results also align with the broader discourse on higher education's role in economic development and offer insights for improving alignment between educational outcomes and labour market needs in developing countries like Azerbaijan. While the management style of educational programmes and the faculty members were recognized as influential aspects of quality provision and assurance for skilled human resource development, university managers expressed a desire for greater support and autonomy from macro-level institutions, such as the Ministry of Science and Education, particularly in curriculum design and fostering more effective university-industry partnerships.

James Baldwin in the USSR and Post-Soviet Countries, 1970s–2010s

This article explores the history of Baldwin Studies in the USSR and post-Soviet countries (Azerbajian, Belarus, Russia, Ukraine), which is illustrative of literary approaches and interpretations characteristic of Soviet scholarship. First translations of his short stories, essays, and the play Blues for Mr. Charlie appeared in the early 1960s, followed by commentaries in leading Soviet literary and popular journals. For ideological reasons, in the 1960–70s the focus was on the writer’s public stance and involvement in the civil rights movement. It was only in the years of perestroika—“openness”—and the 1990s that his oeuvre in its entirety began to be discussed without taboos, omissions, or ideological bias. In the 2000s, the focus shifted to discussions of aspects of Baldwin’s method and peculiarities of his style. At present, James Baldwin is regarded as a key personality in contemporary US literature, though interest in his literary heritage has somewhat subsided.

Тенденции распределения доходов между трудом и капиталом в странах с низкой долей труда в ВВП

The work is devoted to obtaining quantitative estimates of trends in the distribution of income between labor and capital in countries with a low share of labor in GDP. UN data was used for a set of European countries, post-Soviet countries, Israel, Canada, the USA and Turkey. The lowest labor share levels were observed in Ireland, Kyrgyzstan, Romania and Turkey. To assess trends in the share of labor in GDP on the rate of economic growth, linear econometric models of changes in the share of labor compensation in GDP by year in the period from 2012 to 2021 were built. Hungary, Ireland, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan and Ukraine have seen a decline in the share of labor in GDP. In Uzbekistan, this trend is weakly expressed. Germany, Greece, Iceland, Luxembourg, the Czech Republic, Switzerland and Estonia have seen an increase in the labor share of GDP. In Germany and Switzerland this trend is weakly expressed. An increase in the share of labor in GDP is observed in countries such as Azerbaijan, Belarus, Bulgaria, Georgia, Israel, Cyprus, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Norway, Poland, the Russian Federation, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia, Turkmenistan and Turkey. Moreover, this trend is weakly expressed in Belarus and Turkey. There are no significant trends in the redistribution of income between labor and capital in countries such as Albania, Malta, North Macedonia, Tajikistan and Montenegro. Trends in the redistribution of income between labor and capital can be determined by institutional conditions in the country’s economy.

National Conflicts in North Caucasus: Origins and Resolution

This article examines the causes and consequences of national conflicts in the North Caucasus. It addresses issues related to the sources of ethnic conflicts in contemporary times. The significance of the North Caucasus as a bridge connecting north to south and west to east is emphasized, highlighting its immense importance for the Russian Federation. From a geostrategic perspective, this region serves as a gateway to Central Asia while also providing access to Western markets. The paper pays particular attention to events that have transpired since the late 1980s in the Caucasus, where some of the most acute ethnopolitical conflicts and wars have occurred. Six out of eight armed ethnopolitical civil conflicts in the post-Soviet space unfolded in this region. The article raises the issue that, as a result of these events, the Caucasian region has become a battleground for separatist organizations within the post-Soviet context. Armed conflicts have led to numerous human casualties, material losses, economic downturns, and other tragedies. Based on the materials studied, it is concluded that ethnic conflicts are diverse in their manifestations. The conditions for the politicization of ethnic conflicts in the North Caucasus are also explored.

Совесть и историческая память в контексте российской культуры

Introduction. The work is aimed at revealing the dialectical relationship between the sense of conscience and historical memory, the conditionality of both by the dominant ideals of culture. Theoretical analysis. Using a psychoanalytic approach and the method of critical philosophical reflection, the author focuses on the conditionality of the cognition of history, and at the same time historical memory, by the restrictive framework of conscience, set by the specific orientation of an individual to the ideals of culture. Empirical analysis. The consequences of the predominant emphasis in the media and educational environment on the negative aspects of the Soviet stage of history, which was one of the main reasons for the moral and spiritual disorientation of the inhabitants of the post-Soviet space, are analyzed. This disorientation, right up to moral degradation to Nazi ideals, with the corresponding framework of shame and conscience, manifested itself most clearly in modern Ukraine. Conclusion. The selectivity of this knowledge of history, and, consequently, this memory of the past, depends on the characteristics of the manifestations of a sense of conscience, coupled with the requirements of moral ideals that guide a person in his actions and thoughts. For the successful development of Russia, it is necessary to enrich the historical memory with positive, significant events of the past, building a line of continuity of ideals that orient towards social justice, past and present.

Family and gender images in self-publishing

The valuable basis of almost all the texts discussed is Catholicism. This leads to the conservative nature of the articles and the negative attitude towards the social and cultural changes that had taken place during modernization. However, the level of conservatism of self-published authors and the details of the assessment of the changes differed. Most of the authors blamed the Soviet state and the system (especially the atheism of society) for all the negative changes, while some of them believed it was a consequence of a special policy aimed at destroying the Lithuanian nation. A smaller number of authors saw the threat arising not so much from the USR as from modernization itself, and thus from the West. A lack of more diverse sources of information may have contributed to the ideological conservatism, which forced authors to rely on the interwar publications. Such a situation had intervened the perception of the changed reality and adequate response to it. This, in turn, could have reduced the impact or even prevalence of self-publishing – the diversity of opinions in the legal press was much greater. Generally, the Soviet regime was accused by selfpublished authors of promoting excessive freedom (legal abortions, simple divorce proceedings, etc.) and was criticized for destroying traditional gender roles. Therefore, the relationship of the underground authors with freedom was ambiguous – in the fight for the political freedom of the nation, personal human freedom was not valued in private life, and the texts usually emphasized a person’s duty – a person was subordinated to the idea, only not to that of the communists but also to the national idea. The fact that there were no discussions on family and gender issues in the self-published publications shows a lack of authors, the ideological unity of various publications, and a lack of liberal and democratic values in the underground movement. Some texts kind of reveal certain ideas of female emancipation; however, the longing for the traditional family and the respective gender roles dominate, and there are no hints of the need for real gender equality in a family. Instead, there is a clear link between traditional femininity and the exaltation of a woman. A hypothesis may be made that this was due to the link between gender equality with the Soviet propaganda and the reality of the USR when women were forced to endure a double workload. The image of a religious family as an antidote to pervasive immorality and degrading civil marriage can also be seen as a form of Catholic advocating, offered as an antidote to the breakdown of families and the enslavement of women. Perhaps this may have contributed to the religious revival in the early 1980s. Comparing the family and gender discourses in the publications of self-published authors and the legal press, many similarities may clearly be noticed, the most important of which is a very similar critique of the identical consequences of modernization. Sometimes disadvantages such as divorce, a small number of children in families, abortions, and the situation of women were criticized almost identically. Nevertheless, the causes of these disadvantages were searched for in a different place in self-published publications, first of all – in atheism policy. Therefore, despite the obvious hostility of self-publishing discourses to the Soviet reality and politics, they essentially only supplemented the public discourses by expressing those things that could not be made public due to the Soviet censorship (religious and anti-Soviet themes) but did not create a fundamentally different understanding of gender, family or sexuality from that prevailing in the public sphere. On the one hand, such similarity would be explained by the fact that self-published texts reflected the norms and values successfully introduced by public discourses to society. Much of the criticism of the system and reality was based namely on the postulates of the Soviet discourses, which had spread freely in public. The fact that a conservative turn in the discourses of family and gender relations took place throughout the USR in the 1970s may have contributed to this similarity. On the other hand, such a similarity can be explained by the discourses of the interwar Catholic family that had survived and preserved in society and were not influenced by Soviet propaganda. Still, it is doubtful that people could have remained unaffected by public discourses for three or four decades. However, taking into account the conservatism of the Soviet ideology and the order in the studies areas, it would be more accurate to state that no essential changes took place in Lithuania during the Soviet era in the field of family images and gender stereotypes.

Reassembling Post-Soviet Eurasia: Russia’s Leadership Potential in Conditions of External Pressure

The article examines the change in the world order and its geopolitical, geoeconomic, cultural and humanitarian consequences for Eurasian integration. The stages of transformation of the post-Soviet space after the collapse of the USSR are identified. The main risks for the countries of the region are characterized. It is concluded that medium-term challenges for integration processes include three areas: energy transition, information and communication revolution, including the expansion of digital platforms and the development of large language models, as well as the policy of the United States and other Western countries to contain and slow down the technological progress of Russia, China and other non-Western countries. These challenges pose a threat of consolidating post-Soviet Eurasia on the periphery of world development, but at the same time form the prerequisites for accelerating integration. Recommendations are given on the need to strengthen the scientific and technological direction of integration interaction with the leading role of Russia up to its approval as the main one within the EAEU. This process should be built on the basis of mutual benefit and strengthening trust, strengthening humanitarian cooperation between Russia and its partners in Eurasian integration.

The Influence of Soviet State Policy on School Everyday Life in Kazakhstan (1945–1955)

Introduction. The work reconstructs the ideological component of Soviet children’s everyday school life in Kazakhstan, which had a huge impact on their socialization. Methods and materials. The methodological basis of the study is the theory of the sociologist P. Sztompka about the significance of “cultural trauma” in the biography of any generation of people – social tension associated with changes in society, the transformation of its values. The method of narrative interview was used in the work. Interviews were conducted with over 20 respondents whose childhood was spent in Kazakhstan in 1945–1965. Analysis. Archival data and recollections of respondents show that the school, which traditionally carried out a certain order of society, was the main mechanism in the formation of the “new Soviet person.” During the period under study, the “order” was to form a Soviet identity, with which the Soviet school and socio-political organizations represented by the pioneers and the Komsomol in Kazakhstan successfully coped. Everyday school practice reflected the ideological component of school education – all respondents, assessing their childhood from today’s standpoint, are aware of the degree of this influence. Results. A number of mechanisms were analyzed through which the official Soviet authorities formed the consciousness of the future “builders of communism”: the school, ideologized and, in fact, obligatory children’s organizations, and propaganda. The identified correspondence between the propaganda ideal and the real image of a Soviet schoolchild indicates the acceptance and assimilation of socialist values by children in Kazakhstan. The data obtained open up prospects for new research on the history of Soviet children’s everyday lives. Authors contribution. A.A. Bimoldanova proposed the idea and concept of the article and wrote the final text. M.J. Bekmagambetova prepared a historiographic review, was engaged in the identification and analysis of documentary sources from the Archive of the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan, and R.K. Bekmagambetov carried out the transcription and interpretation of the interview materials and the technical design of the text of the article. All three authors interviewed respondents.

History of health care development in the Republic of Kazakhstan

Introduction: The urgent need to modernize Kazakhstan's healthcare system arises from deep-rooted economic crises and systemic challenges exacerbated during the transition to capitalism from Soviet-era centralized planning. Objective: The research aims to analyze the stages of development of healthcare in the Republic of Kazakhstan since the country gained its independence. Methods: To solve the set tasks the authors applied such methods of knowledge as historical, comparative, systemic, and method of political-legal analysis. Results: Research results consist in the formulation of the basic stages of development of public health in Kazakhstan, the definition of advantages and disadvantages of functioning of the given branch on each of them, and also in the designation of transformations and innovations in the public health sphere for last years. Conclusions: The materials of this research can be applied in the applied and research spheres. In particular, the research may be of interest to the employees of the state authorities who are dealing with the problems of reforming the health care system in post-Soviet countries. In addition, the materials can be used in the work of scientists whose sphere of interest includes the formation of policy in the field of health care management

THE HISTORY OF THE LUZHNIKI STADIUM: FROM THE SETTLEMENT TO THE ARENA

The article examines the history of the territory of the Moscow settlement, which was called “Luzhniki”. The article analyzes versions of the name of this area. The author in his article touches on the history of the Novodevichy Convent ensemble. The article examines the process of settling the territory of Luzhniki, how the appearance of Luzhniki has changed over several centuries. The natural features of the Luzhniki territory are analyzed in detail. The article examines the history of the construction of the main sports arena of the Soviet state. The author analyzes the social conditionality of the creation of this unique sports complex, which has become one of the main symbols of the city.

The financial legal regulation of the securities market of the Republic of Belarus

The article pays attention to integration processes in the postSoviet space. The author reveals the specifics of the legal regulation of the Union State of Russia and the Republic of Belarus, as well as such an economic association as the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU). The work reveals the powers of the bodies exercising control and supervisory powers in the stock market. The specific features of supervision in this market are also discussed. It is noted that the securities market of Belarus is underdeveloped and is focused primarily on Russia. The author believes that in modern conditions, Russian companies are becoming increasingly interested in deepening cooperation with organizations from this state.

Problems of preserving the position of the Russian language in Georgia within the context of current geopolitical situation

The problem of studying the status of the Russian language in the countries of the post-Soviet space is particularly relevant within the framework of Russia’s language policy aimed at popularizing the Russian language and culture abroad. The article analyzes the status and position of the Russian language in Georgia in the current geopolitical realities: it focuses on the trend of gradual decline in the level of Russian language proficiency among the residents of Georgia, and also considers the aspect of the status of the Russian-speaking Diaspora in the republic, its legal position and the possibility for Russian-speaking citizens of Georgia to receive education in Russian. In addition, the article provides statistical data showing the change in the Russian-speaking population of Georgia since the collapse of the USSR.

ON THE IMPLEMENTATION BY THE PEOPLE’S COMMISSARIAT OF LIGHT INDUSTRY OF THE USSR OF THE RESOLUTIONS OF THE STATE DEFENCE COMMITTEE IN THE 2ND HALF OF 1941

This article examines the process of implementation by the People’s Commissariat of Light Industry of the USSR of the resolutions of the State Defence Committee on the production of clothing and equipment for the acting army. At the same time, the most difficult period for the Soviet state is covered – the 2nd half of 1941. The resolutions are examined in chronological order, as they were adopted, which allows us comprehending the progressive formation of the experience of state management of the economy of various industries and, above all, light industry. Moreover, they allow us getting an idea of the needs of the Red Army during that period, state measures aimed not only at replenishing military equipment lost in the first months of the battles, but also increasing production of uniforms, primarily winter ones. The article reflects the problems that arose during the implementation of the Committee’s resolutions, their overcoming, as well as the first actions to unite the efforts of the People’s Commissariats to solve priority tasks. It also provides information on the example of the Ukraine SSR about the loss of the entire light industry as a result of the occupation of virtually all the economic potential, which was to be replaced by enterprises in Central Russia and the eastern regions of the Soviet Union. The article presents the results of the work of the People’s Commissariat of Light Industry of the USSR for the 2nd half of 1941. The article is addressed to specialists in the field of the history of light industry, graduate students, undergraduates and students of higher educational institutions.

How the Russian-Ukrainian war changed the geopolitical picture of the world

For centuries, russia was the country that was showing its power in the international political system. Firstly, the emergence of the Soviet Union and 15 countries united under one roof, and then its dissolution in 1991 made russia a more aggressive power that the international community witnessed these years. This was mainly against the post-Soviet Space, as russia till today, thinks that post-Soviet countries are and should be under the influence of russia. That's the main reason why Russia has aggressive foreign policy towards its neighboring countries, especially Georgia and Ukraine. The wars against Ukraine and Georgia show how huge a threat can be coming from the imperialist neighbor state. Here, three main years of wars are outlined: 2008, 2014, and the year of 2022, when Russia started a new military occupation against Ukraine. This aggressive foreign policy dimension is not only a threat for only post-Soviet space but to international security as well. Russia’s internal and external policy dimensions have always been a subject of international world order, as its steps always had some implications for both regional and international political systems. This research will discuss what are the main implications of military occupations conducted by russia in the 21st century.

Military occupations conducted by Russia in the 21st century and their implications: the cases of Georgia and Ukraine

For centuries, Russia has been a country that has demonstrated its strength in the international political system. First, the emergence of the Soviet Union and 15 countries united under one roof, and then its collapse in 1991, made Russia a more aggressive state, as the international community witnessed during these years. This was mainly directed against the post-Soviet space, as Russia still believes that post-Soviet countries are and should be under Russian influence. This is the main reason why Russia has an aggressive foreign policy towards its neighbors, especially Georgia and Ukraine. The wars against Ukraine and Georgia show how great the threat from an imperialist neighboring state can be. The three main years of the wars are outlined here: 2008, 2014, and 2022, when Russia began a new military occupation of Ukraine. This aggressive foreign policy dimension poses a threat not only to the post-Soviet space, but also to international security. Russia's domestic and foreign policy has always been a subject of the international world order, as its steps have always had certain consequences for both the regional and international political system. In this study, we will look at the main consequences of the military occupations carried out by Russia in the 21st century.

Global Suicide Mortality Rates (2000-2019): Clustering, Themes, and Causes Analyzed through Machine Learning and Bibliographic Data.

Suicide research is directed at understanding social, economic, and biological causes of suicide thoughts and behaviors. (1) Background: Worldwide, certain countries have high suicide mortality rates (SMRs) compared to others. Age-standardized suicide mortality rates (SMRs) published by the World Health Organization (WHO) plus numerous bibliographic records of the Web of Science (WoS) database provide resources to understand these disparities between countries and regions. (2) Methods: Hierarchical clustering was applied to age-standardized suicide mortality rates per 100,000 population from 2000-2019. Keywords of country-specific suicide-related publications collected from WoS were analyzed by network and association rule mining. Keyword embedding was carried out using a recurrent neural network. (3) Results: Countries with similar SMR trends formed naturally distinct groups of high, medium, and low suicide mortality rates. Major themes in suicide research worldwide are depression, mental disorders, youth suicide, euthanasia, hopelessness, loneliness, unemployment, and drugs. Prominent themes differentiating countries and regions include: alcohol in post-Soviet countries; HIV/AIDS in Sub-Saharan Africa, war veterans and PTSD in the Middle East, students in East Asia, and many others. (4) Conclusion: Countries naturally group into high, medium, and low SMR categories characterized by different keyword-informed themes. The compiled dataset and presented methodology enable enrichment of analytical results by bibliographic data where observed results are difficult to interpret.

From Lenin To Leninism

In “From Lenin to Leninism,” Osvaldo Coggiola examines the evolution of Lenin's influence on the 20th century, as recognized by Eric Hobsbawm. Lenin's leadership during the October Revolution and the subsequent establishment of the Soviet state left an indelible mark on global history. This paper traces the transformation of Lenin's ideas into “Leninism,” a doctrine formalized posthumously, which became a foundation for the international communist movement. Coggiola highlights the contrast between Lenin's practical approach to revolutionary strategy and the rigid, bureaucratic interpretation that Stalin later imposed. The analysis delves into Lenin's theoretical contributions, particularly his views on the agrarian question and the proletarian revolution, while critiquing the subsequent misappropriation and mythologization of his legacy. This historical re-examination underscores Lenin's complex legacy and its implications for contemporary socialist thought and practice

Features of the organization and activities of the military college of the supreme court of the USSR during World War II

Without pretending to be exhaustive, the authors aim to focus on the organizational features of the functioning of the Military Collegium of the Supreme Court (MCSC) of the USSR during the Second World War and the specifics of its punitive practice in the specified period in the western regions of Ukraine. The purpose of the task is to clarify the powers, the circumstances of the struggle for the strengthening of the monopoly in the control of military tribunals (MT) between the MCSC and the People's Commissariat of Justice (PCJ) of the USSR, highlighting the role of the Military Board in passing judgments, the implementation of absentee justice, as well as the details of the preparation and conducting field sessions in the west of Ukraine. The research methodology combines the tools of historical and legal analysis and social anthropology. The scientific novelty consists in posing and revealing the problem of conceptualization and practical implementation of the punitive policy of the Soviet state with the participation of the highest military judicial institution. The material introduced into scientific circulation makes it possible to focus research optics on the issues of interaction and parallelism, the struggle between various departments for control over special courts, to create a more complete picture of the arbitrariness that unfolded in the last war and post-war years in the western Ukrainian lands. It was established that the Military Collegium of the Supreme Court of the USSR was an integral part of the political terror implemented both in the armed forces and against the civilian population. Created in 1939, the parallelism in the control of the VT by the People's Commissariat of Justice and the MCSC caused a confrontation between these bodies. The top of the USSR used this in their interests to maintain their own undivided control over the judiciary. The content and methods/forms of the punitive practice of this institution (customary nature, absentee justice, etc.) remained intact since the Great Terror and were fully controlled by the highest political leadership of the USSR. This was clearly confirmed during the work of field sessions in the western regions of the Ukrainian SSR.

Ability to Maintain and Improve Health and Socio-Demographic Correlates among Children in Albania.

Our aim was to assess the level and socio-demographic correlates of the ability to maintain health among children in Albania, a post-communist country in the Western Balkans. A cross-sectional study was conducted in Albania in September 2022. The study population consisted of a nationwide representative sample of 7,831 schoolchildren (≈54% girls) aged 12-15 years. A structured self-administered and anonymous questionnaire inquired about the children's attitudes toward health promotion (ability to maintain and improve health) and a range of key dimensions on knowledge and practices regarding healthcare services. Socio-demographic data were also collected. Binary logistic regression was used to assess the socio-demographic correlates of children's ability to maintain health. Overall, about 71% of schoolchildren exhibited the best attitudes toward health promotion (ability to maintain and improve health). In the multivariable adjusted logistic regression models, poorer attitudes toward health promotion (ability to maintain and improve health) were significantly related to older age (OR=1.2, 95% CI=1.0-1.3), middle/low maternal education (OR=1.2, 95%CI=1.1-1.3), poor/very poor economic situation (OR=1.5, 95%CI=1.2-1.8), lack of appropriate knowledge about rights to healthcare (OR=1.3, 95% CI=1.1-1.5), lack of knowledge about obtaining healthcare services (OR=1.7, 95%CI=1.4-2.2), and lack of consultations/visits with health professionals excluding vaccinations (OR=1.2, 95%CI=1.1-1.4). Almost 1/3rd of Albanian schoolchildren included in this study did not exhibit the best attitudes toward health promotion (ability to maintain and improve health). The best attitudes were related to a higher socioeconomic level and adequate knowledge and practices regarding healthcare services. There is thus a need to increase health literacy levels among children in order to ultimately induce sustainable healthy behavioural/lifestyle practices.

Foreign Migrants in the Moscow Agglomeration: Spatio-Temporal Analysis Based on Mobile Network Operator Data

Using mobile network operator data, the study analyzes the modern ethnic landscape of the Moscow agglomeration formed by foreign migrants. Their total number and monthly dynamics from October 2021 to October 2022 were analyzed. Foreigners’ main areas of residence were identified, the ethnic diversity of municipalities was assessed, and the main types of settlement pattern of national-ethnic communities were identified. The study showed that the total number of foreign migrants in the agglomeration reaches 1.8 mln people, or 9% of the total population, remaining almost unchanged against the backdrop of the events of 2022, including the special military operation. The share of foreigners is minimal in closed administrative-territorial units (below 3%), and it is also small in the remote parts of Moscow Region, as well as in expensive areas of the capital. At the same time, eight municipalities in the agglomeration have crossed the 17% mark, the so-called tipping point, reflecting a sharp increase in the risks of interethnic conflicts and ghettoization of the urban space. The two most noticeable areas of increased concentration of foreign migrants have been identified in the southeast at the junction of Moscow and Moscow oblast (Lublino–Kotelniki) and in New Moscow (Mosrentgen–Sosenskoe). Calculation of the Ekkel’ ethnic mosaic index has confirmed the presence of pronounced interethnic contact zones here. Elevated index values were also noted in most areas of the center and southwest of the capital, which, with a lower share of foreign residents, is associated with a high density of office buildings, diplomatic institutions, and universities. Analysis of the settlement patterns of national-ethnic groups of migrants revealed three types determined in accordance with the adaptive capabilities of ethnic communities. A diffuse, relatively uniform settlement pattern is characteristic of both the largest ethnic groups (citizens of Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, and Kyrgyzstan) and those most culturally close to the local population (immigrants from Ukraine and Belarus). A concentric settlement pattern (in residential areas of Moscow and satellite cities) is typical of relatively large ethnic groups from post-Soviet countries (citizens of Azerbaijan, Armenia, and Georgia). The local type is characteristic of small ethnic communities that gravitate towards certain areas of the capital.