Port Of Departure Research Articles

The journey of the Komagata Maru: national, transnational, diasporic

ABSTRACTMore than a hundred years ago, a Japanese ship called Komagata Maru chartered by Gurdit Singh, a prosperous entrepreneur based in Singapore, carrying 376 Punjabi passengers - largely Sikhs but also some Hindus and Muslims - from Hong Kong was not permitted to land in Vancouver on grounds of a stipulation about a continuous journey from the port of departure and forced to return to Budge Budge near Kolkata where the passengers were fired at, detained or kept under surveillance for years. The Komagata Maru has become the site for the contestation over discriminatory policies regulating South Asian migrations to Canada. While the passengers perceived it as a violent instance of the suppression of the freedom and rights of the loyal subjects of the British Empire, the colonial administration justified its action alleging that seditious activities were being carried out on the chartered ship. The resurrection of the Komagata Maru's tragic journey in Canadian and Indian national memories foregrounds a number of key contemporary debates related to memory and history; imperialism and resistance; racism, exclusion and inclusion; nation and citizenship; mobilities and immobilities; and emigration and diasporas.

A Global Capacity Building Vision for Societal Applications of Earth Observing Systems and Data: Key Questions and Recommendations

Capacity building using Earth observing (EO) systems and data (i.e., from orbital and nonorbital platforms) to enable societal applications includes the network of human, nonhuman, technical, nontechnical, hardware, and software dimensions that are necessary to successfully cross the valley [of death; see NRC (2001)] between science and research (port of departure) and societal application (port of arrival). In many parts of the world (especially where ground-based measurements are scarce or insufficient), applications of EO data still struggle for longevity or continuity for a variety of reasons, foremost among them being the lack of resilient capacity. An organization is said to have resilient capacity when it can retain and continue to build capacity in the face of unexpected shocks or stresses. Stresses can include intermittent power and limited Internet bandwidth, constant need for education on ever-increasing complexity of EO systems and data, communication challenges between the ports of departure and arrival (especially across time zones), and financial limitations and instability. Shocks may also include extreme events such as disasters and losing key staff with technical and institutional knowledge.

The Port-Vendres 4 Shipwreck Cargo: evidence of the Roman wine trade in the western Mediterranean

The Port-Vendres 4 shipwreck is evidence of coastal export trade between Hispania Citerior and Narbonne in 40/30 BC. The cargo is made up of a particular assemblage of Roman wine amphoras (Pascual 1, Dressel 1B and Lamboglia 2) destined for Gallic markets. Archaeological and archaeometric analyses conducted on a selection of the amphoras allowed the provenance of the cargo to be identified as Hispania Citerior and the central-southern Tyrrhenian coast of Italy. Iluro and/or Baetulo are proposed as the ports of departure, enabling the reconstruction of the trade route and the historical and economic significance of this shipwreck.

An Unpromising Land: Jewish Migration to Palestine in the Early Twentieth Century by Gur Alroey (review)

Reviewed by: An Unpromising Land: Jewish Migration to Palestine in the Early Twentieth Century by Gur Alroey Ori Yehudai Gur Alroey. An Unpromising Land: Jewish Migration to Palestine in the Early Twentieth Century. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2014. Pp. xiv, 285. $65. ISBN 9780804790871. In the scholarship on the Zionist movement, as well as in Israeli collective memory, the Second Aliyah—a wave of Jewish immigration to Palestine which began in the wake of the Kishinev pogrom in Russia in 1903 and lasted until the outbreak of World War I—is regarded as a formative chapter in the history of Jewish settlement in Palestine. Accounts of the period relate the story of idealistic young pioneers who left their homes in Eastern Europe determined to rid themselves of their exilic past and create a new Jewish society based on Zionist and socialist values. Advocating the principles of manual labor, self-reliance, self-defense, and the revitalization of Hebrew culture, these Jews changed the face of the new Yishuv by introducing highly influential institutions such as Palestine’s first collective agricultural settlements (e.g. Sejera and Degania) and paramilitary organizations (Bar-Giora, Hashomer), as well as cultural and academic establishments like the Bezalel School of Arts and Crafts. It was from among this cadre that many future leaders of the Yishuv and the State of Israel—including David Ben-Gurion, Berl Katznelson and Yitzhak Ben-Zvi—emerged. Although this elite group was but a small minority of the 35,000 Jews who reached Palestine between 1904 and 1914, they attracted so much scholarly and popular attention that the period came to be identified solely with their aspirations, struggles, and achievements. Gur Alroey’s An Unpromising Land is an important and convincing corrective to this perception. Rather than dealing with the socialist Zionist pioneers, the study focuses on “the average Eastern European immigrant who was light-years away from Zionist ideology and who came to Palestine for various prosaic reasons.” (19) As Alroey explains, Zionist historiography ignored the experience of the “ordinary immigrants” as it interpreted Jewish immigration to Palestine as an exceptional phenomenon in the history of Jewish migration, or in the words of one historian, as “a pure, clean current rooted in elevated, distant national and social goals… current that is all idea and vision.” (9) [End Page 209] An Unpromising Land brings the discussion down to an earthly level. Instead of viewing the movement to Palestine through the prism of Zionist ideology, it provides a detailed analysis of the relationship between “push” factors in Eastern Europe and “pull” factors in Palestine, the demographic composition of the immigrants, the obstacles they faced on their migration routes, and the degree to which they were absorbed into their new environment. Alroey uses a variety of secondary and primary sources, including memoirs, newspaper articles, lists of passengers compiled at the ports of departure and arrival, and, most interestingly, letters from prospective immigrants to information bureaus established by Zionist institutions at several points along the migration pathways. Alroey’s main conclusion from the letters (and from his other sources) is that most of the migrants were artisans, peddlers, and small tradesmen who sought to escape the intolerable economic conditions in tsarist Russia, and who moved to Palestine not in order to join the Zionist enterprise but in search of better economic opportunities. They did not wish to shed their diaspora identities and become tillers of the soil, but rather to settle in cities and pursue their old occupations. They saw themselves “as immigrants, wanderers, or simply incomers—not as olim.” (7) In this respect, Jewish immigration to Palestine was no different from Jewish immigration to any other country, and indeed, a central theme of this book is a comparison between the Eastern European Jews who went to Palestine and those who departed to the United States. Alroey insists on the similarities between the groups, but his fascinating findings in fact suggest that the differences are no less, and perhaps even more telling. Although in both cases migrants were driven by economic distress, the movement to Palestine was to a large extent caused by the “fright and panic” of the pogroms. (236) Whereas both migrations...

Port of Departure, Port of Return: Mapping Indentured Returns to Calcutta

A newly installed plaque at the port of Kolkata stands as a memorial to the indentured Indian diaspora. It conveys a collective story relevant to present desires, not past hauntings. Yet it is the tension of absences and silences that makes the port city an interesting site of individual memories and collective diasporic history. This essay attempts to show the possibilities of an imaginative construction of indentured return experiences intersecting with intergenerational memories as well as the cultivation of facts on the ground, inspired by Wilson Harris's argument that Caribbean scholarship needs to bridge the gap between historicity, space, and imagination.

Transport Costs Affecting LNG Delivery by Moss Type Carriers

The paper discusses the influence of transportation costs on the delivery of liquefied natural gas (LNG) by sea. The research part of the project was carried out by using a dedicated LNG Moss type carrier with the capacity of 205,000 m3 and by taking into account the price of the propulsion engine fuel, LNG, as one of the most important factors of the final cost of LNG transportation. The fluctuation of the final costs also depends on the price of construction of a new vessel, the vessel’s design, sufficient number of the vessels required for transportation, and the amount of cargo to be shipped from a load port to the import terminal. The port of Murmansk, possibly one of Russia’s largest LNG load terminals, was used as port of departure, i.e. port of load. The final destinations, i.e. import terminals, included the ports of Zeebrugge, South Hook, Cove Point, Chiba and Fujian. It should be noticed that this study involved two sailing routes, the Suez Canal and the North East Passage, taking into consideration the harsh weather conditions the vessels might encounter during navigation.

A Rapid Assessment Technique to Assist Management of the White Shark (Carcharodon Carcharias) Cage Dive Industry, South Australia

Port Lincoln, South Australia is the departure port for the only white shark, Carcharodon carcharias, cage dive industry in Australia. Established in the early 1960’s as a niche tourism venture, the industry has recently undergone a rapid expansion to accommodate greater passenger numbers, more tourism operators, and additional infrastructure aimed at capturing a greater proportion of the tourist dollar. However, to date, there has been no assessment of growth in the industry. We have used the operator logbook system, introduced in 2000, as the basis for a rapid assessment of the maturity as well as a conservative estimate of the economic value of the industry, with a focus on 2011. From the logbook system the number of days on-site has increased from an average of 67 days per year prior to 2007 to 287 days on-site in 2011. In 2011 the industry accommodated approximately 5200 passengers with a direct domestic expenditure estimated to be in excess of 6 million AUD. Changes in shark behaviour have been observed following the increase in days on-site. The white shark cage dive industry has reached a stage in its development where increased management is required in order to ensure a viable industry into the future. The rapid assessment technique described herein will allow managers to track changes in cage dive participation rates and quickly respond to changes in the industry.

Genetic Footprints of Iberian Cattle in America 500 Years after the Arrival of Columbus

BackgroundAmerican Creole cattle presumably descend from animals imported from the Iberian Peninsula during the period of colonization and settlement, through different migration routes, and may have also suffered the influence of cattle directly imported from Africa. The introduction of European cattle, which began in the 18th century, and later of Zebu from India, has threatened the survival of Creole populations, some of which have nearly disappeared or were admixed with exotic breeds. Assessment of the genetic status of Creole cattle is essential for the establishment of conservation programs of these historical resources.Methodology/Principal FindingsWe sampled 27 Creole populations, 39 Iberian, 9 European and 6 Zebu breeds. We used microsatellite markers to assess the origins of Creole cattle, and to investigate the influence of different breeds on their genetic make-up. The major ancestral contributions are from breeds of southern Spain and Portugal, in agreement with the historical ports of departure of ships sailing towards the Western Hemisphere. This Iberian contribution to Creoles may also include some African influence, given the influential role that African cattle have had in the development of Iberian breeds, but the possibility of a direct influence on Creoles of African cattle imported to America can not be discarded. In addition to the Iberian influence, the admixture with other European breeds was minor. The Creoles from tropical areas, especially those from the Caribbean, show clear signs of admixture with Zebu.Conclusions/SignificanceNearly five centuries since cattle were first brought to the Americas, Creoles still show a strong and predominant signature of their Iberian ancestors. Creole breeds differ widely from each other, both in genetic structure and influences from other breeds. Efforts are needed to avoid their extinction or further genetic erosion, which would compromise centuries of selective adaptation to a wide range of environmental conditions.

Optimization-based decision support system for crew scheduling in the cruise industry

Crew members on cruise ships are hired in a global labor market, and a major cost for cruise lines is moving crew members from their home cities to the cruise ship’s departure port. Complicating the crew scheduling problem is the uncertainty due to no-shows, terminations, and other reasons for crew to terminate their contract prematurely. To address this problem, this paper describes a scheduling system that implements a two-stage planning process that first determines overbooking levels for the number of crew to offer contracts to, and then second, a goal integer programming formulation to minimize the movement cost of assigning crew to ships while maintaining adequate crew levels and a desired crew region composition. We solve actual-sized problems characteristic of the cruise industry in a reasonably short amount of time. Experiments comparing the actual crew movement costs to the system’s projected crew movement costs show that the scheduling system can consistently reduce the movement costs in the range of 9–23%, better maintain desired crew levels, and better maintain desired crew region composition.

Crossing borders: migration and citizenship in the twentieth-century United States

Aspiring immigrants to the United States make many separate border crossings in their quest to become Americans--in their home towns, ports of departure, U.S. border stations, and in American neighborhoods, courthouses, and schools. In a book of remarkable breadth, Dorothee Schneider covers both the immigrants' experience of their passage from an old society to a new one and American policymakers' debates over admission to the United States and citizenship. Bringing together the separate histories of Irish, English, German, Italian, Jewish, Chinese, Japanese, and Mexican immigrants, the book opens up a fresh view of immigrant aspirations and government responses. Ingenuity and courage emerge repeatedly from these stories, as immigrants adapted their particular resources, especially social networks, to make migration and citizenship successful on their own terms. While officials argued over immigrants' fitness for admission and citizenship, immigrant communities forced the government to alter the meaning of race, class, and gender as criteria for admission. Women in particular made a long transition from dependence on men to shapers of their own destinies. Schneider aims to relate the immigrant experience as a totality across many borders. By including immigrant voices as well as U.S. policies and laws, she provides a truly transnational history that offers valuable perspectives on current debates over immigration.

Digital Homeland: Polonia on the World Wide Web

When my great-grandparents ventured for America at the beginning of the 20th century, one can only imagine the ordeals they went through. Leaving a small Podlasie village (then Russia) in mid-winter, probably illiterate, not knowing a word of English with only the address of a distant uncle in New York City (E. 155th Str. 274), they headed for Hamburg, the port of departure, where they boarded the ship “Pisa”, and after a long and probably turbulent voyage in class three (sailing the Atlantic in mid-winter is always rough), reached Ellis Island, port of entry to the United States – and reached the Promised Land. There, being made to change their family name from Lewkowicz to Lefkovic (with a diacritic sign over “c”), they moved on further south to the Pennsylvania coal mines of Shenandoah, where they laboured for several years before eventually returning to their native village. In fact, they repeated this cycle twice! “Staying connected” with the family they had left was difficult and in many cases probably impossible. Space and time did matter then. As a result, it meant partly losing their homeland, resulting in deterritorialization1. The present situation of my family, living on what I call a “Polish Island in Western Massachusetts,” would have been inconceivable for my great-grandparents – the immigrants of yesteryear. These days, being “fully connected”, they enjoy all the benefits of the global communication networks that unite farflung spaces. Now, diasporic communities of various ethnic backgrounds, of which Polonia is a good example, are able to “connect” with their geographically distant families and homeland and thus simultaneously remain culturally, emotionally,

Transportation of nonindigenous species via soil on international aircraft passengers’ footwear

The potential for transported soil to harbour and spread nonindigenous species (NIS) is widely recognised and many National Plant Protection Organisations (NPPOs) restrict or prohibit its movement. However, surprisingly few studies have surveyed soil while it is in transit to provide direct support for its role in accidental introductions of NIS. Moreover, there are few border interception records for soil organisms because they are neither easily detected nor routinely isolated and identified. Better data would improve evaluations of risks from soil transported via different pathways, enable targeting of management resources at the riskiest pathways, and support development of new risk management methods. We surveyed organisms present in soil that had been removed from footwear being carried in the baggage of international aircraft passengers arriving in New Zealand and recorded high incidences, counts and diversities of viable bacteria, fungi, nematodes and seeds, as well as several live arthropods. These included taxa that have not been recorded in New Zealand and were therefore almost certainly nonindigenous to this country. In each gram of soil, there was an estimated 52–84% incidence of genera that contain species regulated by New Zealand’s NPPO, which suggests many were potentially harmful. Variation in the incidences and counts of soil organisms with sample weight, footwear type and season at the port of departure indicated it may be possible to develop methods for targeting management resources at the riskiest footwear. Comparisons with previously published data supported the hypothesis that survival of soil organisms is greater when they are transported in protected (e.g. in luggage) rather than unprotected environments (e.g. external surfaces of sea containers); this offers opportunities to develop methods for targeting management resources at the most hazardous soil pathways.

The Implantation of Belgian Immigrants in Western Canada

Belgians did not emigrate in large numbers impelled by overpopulation, persecution, war or economic depression. Crises in the Flemish linen industry and industrial strife in the Walloon factories and collieries were push factors, nevertheless, those who chose to better their economic circumstances in a developing virgin region such as Western Canada, which was in a full economic expansion, often aspired to retire in their native environment. The Belgian government never sponsored emigration but it did regulate the conditions awaiting emigrants in Antwerp (the port of departure for thousands of Europeans) and on board steamships. It also inquired regularly through consular officers into conditions expatriates could expect and experienced. In the settlement of Western Canada, Belgians stood apart from most ethnic groups on several grounds. First, they came cautiously, usually well informed, and they avoided ethnic bloc settlement. They developed a social network emanating from St. Boniface to direct new arrivals to suitable locations and contact persons. They engaged not only in mixed and wheat farming, but some rapidly specialized in dairying, market gardening, sugar beet culture, as well as fruit growing in B.C. A number took up village occupations while others chose urban life revolving around skilled trades, commerce and construction, notably in St. Boniface. However, they did not develop an array of ethnic institutions so they fell into the category of groups lacking institutional completeness, and, rather, integrated into existing community associations. Finally, as a national group, rather than an ethnic group, they integrated into both dominant host societies—the Anglophone for most of the Flemish and the Francophone for the Walloons. Les Belges n’ont pas pris la route de l’émigration pour cause de surpeuplement, de persécution, de guerre, ou même de dépression économique. Les crises dans l’industrie du lin en Flandre et les luttes ouvrières dans les fabriques et mines de la Wallonie y ont, bien sûr, contribué. Néanmoins, ceux qui choisirent d’améliorer leur sort en émigrant dans une région vierge tel que l’Ouest canadien, qui se trouvait en plein essor économique, comptaient tout de même rentrer chez eux pour leur retraite. Le gouvernement belge n’a jamais parrainé l’émigration. Il a par contre réglementé les conditions d’accueil des émigrants à Anvers, point de départ pour des milliers d’Européens, et à bord des navires. Il s’est aussi renseigné chaque année auprès des agents consulaires sur les conditions d’implantation auxquelles les expatriés pouvaient s’attendre et qu’ils ont éprouvées. Dans le peuplement de l’Ouest canadien, les Belges se sont différenciés de la plupart des groupes ethniques à bien des égards. D’abord, ils arrivaient prudemment, d’habitude bien renseignés, et ils ne s’établirent point en blocs ethniques. Ils développèrent un réseau social à partir de Saint-Boniface afin de guider les nouveaux arrivants vers des sites et des personnes-ressources appropriés. Ils ne se lançèrent pas seulement dans la culture “mixte” et celle du blé, mais ils se spécialisèrent aussi dans l’industrie laitière, les fermes maraîchères et la culture de la bettrave sucrière, ainsi que dans les vergers en Colombie britannique. Beaucoup d’entre eux se sont établis dans des villages, tandis que d’autres ont choisi la vie urbaine tournée essentiellement vers les métiers spécialisés, le commerce et la construction, particulièrement à St-Boniface. Cependant, ils ne se dotèrent point d’institutions ethniques, mais ils joignirent les associations communautaires existantes. Enfin, en tant que groupe national plutôt qu’ethnique, ils se sont intégrés dans les deux sociétés hôtes dominantes, les Anglophones pour les Flamands et les Francophones pour les Wallons.

THE ROLE OF QUALITY ASSESSMENTS AS A DECISION MAKING TOOL IN THE IMPORTED FRUIT (SEA FREIGHT) VALUE CHAIN

Quality of fresh produce imported by sea freight is more complex to manage than domestic product quality, because of extended time and distance from grower to consumer. This paper discusses quality aspects of postharvest management of fresh fruit imported by sea freight, including the pressures that occur when a shipment of high value fruit arrives in below optimum condition. Understanding the complexities of all postharvest aspects of the value chain, and how these interact and impact on quality, will assist in delivering an acceptable degree of quality, dependent upon the standard of fruit shipped in the first place. Postharvest quality control can occur at any part of the value chain (e.g., packhouse, port of departure, retailer), but in the case of imported product often the most value can be added, from a quality assessment perspective, at the wholesale and distribution centre level. At this stage, quality assessment can be used to identify whether the product fits predetermined specifications. Any quality deterioration that may have occurred to that point can be checked and used to anticipate how product quality will change over time. Quality assessment should be based on both science and commercial practicality -compromise between the two is required in order to provide useful management information for maintaining quality and aiding commercial decisions. Assessment at arrival and ongoing monitoring of quality provide the basis for commercial decisions that will minimise loss and maximise profit. Detailed quality assessment adds value by providing a sound basis for commercial decisions that need to be made, rather than simply being a pass or fail intervention. Commercial decisions arising from quality findings may include those regarding sale potential, price, prioritisation of sale, and if necessary claims to the supplier.

La música y el Atlántico: Relaciones musicales entre España y Latinoamérica

La música y el Atlántico: Relaciones musicales entre España y Latinoamérica

Did ciguatera prompt the late Holocene Polynesian voyages of discovery?

AbstractThe famous Polynesian voyages characterized an intensive network of cultural exchange and colonization that was particularly active from ad 1000 to 1450. But, why would large groups of people leave their homelands to voyage into the unknown? Oceanic voyages are risky, albeit less so today than in the past. Landfalls were not guaranteed improvements over ports of departure. Taking the Cook Islands as an example, we ask whether harmful algal blooms that result in ciguatera fish poisoning in humans prompted past and present emigration pulses of peoples from within Polynesia. We take a multipronged approach to examine our hypothesis, involving: (1) archaeological evidence, (2) ciguatera fish poisoning reports since the 1940s, and (3) climate and temperature oscillations using palaeodatasets. The archaeological records of fish bones and hooks show abrupt changes in fishing practices in post‐ad 1450 records. Sudden dietary shifts are not linked to overfishing, but may be a sign of ciguatera fish poisoning and adjustment of fishing preference. While fishes form the staple diet of Polynesians, such poisoning renders fishes unusable. We show that ciguatera fish poisoning events coincide with Pacific Decadal Oscillations and suggest that the celebrated Polynesian voyages across the Pacific Ocean may not have been random episodes of discovery to colonize new lands, but rather voyages of necessity. A modern analogue (in the 1990s) was the shift towards processed foods in the Cook Islands during ciguatera fish poisoning events, and mass emigration of islanders to New Zealand and Australia.

Implementing the street-turn strategy by an optimization model

The street-turn option represents a major strategy for the profitability of shipping companies supplying container-based transportation. This option consists in the distribution of trucks delivering loaded containers to import customers, the subsequent allocation of empty containers to export customers and the final dispatch of loaded containers to departure ports. However, the determination of truck routes is a time-consuming activity for shipping companies, because available information can suddenly change while they are making their decisions. In this paper we aim to propose a decision support tool to quickly determine truck routes and implement the street-turn strategy. This tool is based on an optimization model determining the allocation of empty containers between customers and defining truck routes in a post-optimization phase. We compare routes resulting from the proposed model to the decisions of a real shipping company. Early results indicate that this approach represents a promising support for shipping companies in dealing with street-turns. It can significantly reduce distances travelled by trucks and times requested to determine routes.

海難審判庁裁決録による居眠り海難の要因分析-III. : クラスター分析による発生過程の検討

The proportion of dozing in all ship accidents is about 7% (2006). The purpose of this study was to investigate ship accidents caused by dozing watch-keepers. Marine accidents that had been described to the judgment record of the Marine Accidents Inquiry Agency between 1994 and 2003 were used for analysis. The authors investigated the relationship between the situations at the doze shipwreck by analyzing data that included a 30-item categorization procedure, and performing a Cluster Analysis. Analysis also included categorization of accidents according to the type of vessel and vessel use (i.e., fishing vessels; cargo ships). In both types of vessels there was a notable relationship between the situation of "The passage of time from the departure port is long" and the influence of "Work tiredness". The analysis of fishing vessels revealed there was a notable relationship between the situation of "The passage of time from the departure port is long" and the influence of both "Awake rhythm" and "Work tiredness". The analysis of cargo ships revealed there was a notable relationship between the situation of "The passage of time from the departure port is long" and the influence of "No stimulation". These results suggest that consideration of vessel type and use may be necessary in developing counter measures against dozing accidents that result from long-duration navigations.

１９世紀アメリカ捕鯨航海誌―ニューイングランドにおける捕鯨マニュファクチュアの考察―

The writer contributed to “Journal of Geography 2000” Vol.109 on whaling by sailing vessels in the 19th century. Here, the writer studied details the management of whaling voyages at that time.Whaling voyages extended from one year to two, threes, and four years. This necessitated whaling vessels calling at several ports en route for supplies of water, firewood and food. Hakodate in Japan, which was already open to foreign vessels, was one of the ports of call. Whale oil and whalebone harvested during a voyage were sent by cargo clippers to the respective home ports in New England, via supply ports centering on Honolulu in the Sandwich Isis. The purpose was to empty the hold and quickly cash in the cargo.The places of birth of crews were New England and other areas in the USA, but they actually lived around their home ports and had us citizenship. Some of crew members died due to various accidents, or left their vessels because of illness. In addition, in the Pacific, a number of unskilled hands deserted their vessels at some islands of call. Therefore, the vacancies had to be filled at port of calls. As a result, many crews changed composition from the time of departure.The lay-system was contracted at the port of departure. Dividends based on percentage of proceeds of whale oil and whalebone were paid to crews upon return to port. This lay-system was adopted by American whaling, but there were great differences in dividends received by skilled and unskilled hands. In addition, in the case of unskilled hands, dividend account was greatly reduced by advance money and interest before and during the sailing. Therefore, their net income was very small.Untill the 1850s, whaling prospered and proceeds from whale oil and whalebone were large.Naturally, dividends for investors were large. Therefore, shipbuilding casts were easily covered by around 2 voyages. But, in the 1870s when American whaling declined as proceeds from whale oil and whalebone were reduced by the lay-system, both dividends for investors and crews also decreased, although whaling as an enterprise was still carried on. But, interest in whaling of both investors and crews was receding. In the 1870s the number of American crews decreased, and foreign crews including skilled hands increased. Many extra hands also had to be hired.In the history of economics American whaling by sailing vessels in the 19th century can be considered to be at the manufacturing stage. Theory explained that manufacturing develops into a capitalist industry through the Industrial Revolution or mechanization. However, American whaling by sailing vessels did not follow this course. It can be considered that both investors and crews (capital and labor) moved out of the whaling industry to other sectors in the latter part of the 19th century as whale resource decreased. The whale oil market price fell due to competition from petroleum. Moreover, at this time in New England there were large investments in various industries, and the labor market on land was expanding. This is in contrast to the Japanese case in which a manufacturing scale fishery developed into capitalist stage fishery with a limited investment area and a small labor market. The writer would like to pursue this subject.

Transnational Issues in Quarantine

How to promote transnational collaboration in implementing quarantine was the topic of a January 19–23, 2004, conference sponsored by the Defense Threat Reduction Agency. Fifty invited participants discussed the status of quarantine planning in 13 countries (the Americas, Israel, and several members of the European Union [EU] nations). Held in the Wilton Park Conference Centre, Sussex, United Kingdom, the conference, following an International Biological Weapons Attack: Building Cooperation, Achieving Consistency, also addressed quarantine in response to emerging infectious diseases. Participants first examined the legal foundation for quarantine in their countries. Federal Canadian quarantine law applies only to national ports of entry or exit; provincial laws govern quarantine in the provinces. The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention has quarantine responsibilities at national ports of entry or departure; this agency may also become involved when a disease is spreading across state borders or even within a state (when invited by the governor of the state or ordered by the U.S. Secretary of Health and Human Services or the U.S. President). In general, however, quarantine in the United States is a local or state government issue. Quarantine laws in these jurisdictions vary, and some public health authorities expressed reluctance to address their shortcomings through legislation for fear that skeptics of quarantine would further weaken the laws. Other nations would turn to the World Health Organization and its International Health Regulations of 1969 (IHR) for guidance. A revised IHR should be available by 2005, but currently it lists only three diseases—plague, cholera, and yellow fever—as subject to quarantine and offers scant help in planning quarantine. Thus, the legal framework for quarantine varies and contributes little to the construction of a consistent approach to quarantine among nations. European public health officials have forged some bilateral cooperative agreements and are discussing establishing a regional disease control center for EU nations. They are not, however, developing and testing national or transnational plans for possible large-scale quarantine. Some participants thought that consistency in developing and implementing quarantine measures was not necessarily desirable, given that each nation must deal with threats in accordance with its own culture, laws, and traditions. Others thought that inconsistencies in response to the same disease threat might encourage persons to question the need for quarantine measures and choose not to comply. The United States also has not developed comprehensive quarantine plans, trained staff, or conducted quarantine exercises in local communities, despite recently issued federal quarantine guidelines. Especially lacking are processes and procedures to clarify decision-making and coordination in communities with multiple jurisdictions. The heightened concern of the United States about bioterrorism was not shared by others at the conference, although all agreed that persons would likely demand a federal response to a health crisis caused by terrorists, including any required quarantine. Other issues discussed included assurances of compensation for income lost while in quarantine (strongly recommended as a component of any quarantine plan) and psychosocial support to reduce the sense of isolation experienced by many persons while in quarantine. Officials with information management experience during health- and nonhealth-related crises commented on the need for caution in making public statements when faced with a new and evolving threat. The conference permitted participants to establish working relationships with one another, but it also highlighted gaps in comprehensive transnational quarantine planning. The complete conference report is available at http://www.dtra.mil/about/ASCO/wpc/wpc.cfm