Port State Research Articles (Page 1)

Purpose - This study examines how preparation for strict Port State Control Inspections (PSCI) by the Australian Maritime Safety Authority (AMSA), influences the welfare, living and working conditions of seafarers on board PSC vessels in New South Wales. It examines how the onus of ensuring regulatory compliance for ships – particularly in terms of safety, the environment, and labor – impacts the physical, mental, and emotional well-being of seafarers. Some elements of seafarers’ welfare were examined, revealing that compliance with work/rest hours, food quality, accommodation, leadership practices, and the length of the voyage are determining factors. Methodology – A quantitative, cross-sectional research design was employed to gather information from 300 seafarers across various ranks and vessel classes. Data revealed strong demand for improvements in leadership, standardization of living conditions, management of fatigue, and regard for seafarers’ physical well-being. Findings – The findings show extensive differences in welfare between ranks, with senior (management and operational) staff reporting higher levels of fatigue, stress and dissatisfaction than support personnel. A last-minute rush of too little food, improper accommodation and disrupted work/rest hours in expectation of an imminent inspection heightened stress and fatigue. Originality –.These findings suggest that allowing sufficient time to carry out inspections and attending to the welfare of seafarers can significantly reduce stress levels, which, in turn, improves the morale of the entire crew, leading to safer.

Abstract The risk of ships circumventing domestic climate regulations can increase greenhouse gas emissions while negatively impacting port competitiveness and trade. This article identifies regulatory options to effectively mitigate that risk and highlights the main trade-offs that each option may involve. It does so by combining (i) a qualitative law and economics review of shipping companies’ evasion possibilities and incentives, and (ii) a comparative legal study of maritime decarbonization policies in the European Union and the United States. The findings suggest that maritime carbon leakage can materialize in four main forms, or in combinations thereof: reflagging, port evasion, ship substitution, and speed increase. Port states can mitigate it with regulatory countermeasures that limit evasion options, increase the costs of evasion, and/or decrease the costs of compliance for shipping companies. Carbon leakage countermeasures may take the form of amendments to the regulation that generates the risk of carbon leakage, complementary domestic policy measures, or synergies with foreign and international climate regulations. Almost all identified carbon leakage mitigation options imply potentially significant trade-offs for the regulating jurisdiction.

Equitable port state control in maritime transportation: A data-driven optimization approach

Construction of a multimodal knowledge graph for LNG carrier port state control inspections based on improved visual prompt tuning

Data-driven Bayesian Network model for detecting fire safety non-conformities in detained ships under port state controls

Following years of preparatory efforts and evaluation, China formally acceded to the Agreement on Port State Measures to Prevent, Deter and Eliminate Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated Fishing (PSMA) on April 16, 2025, marking a new advancement in its ongoing campaign against IUU fishing and the conservation of marine fisheries. This study examines China’s potential contents for joining the PSMA, identifies implementation challenges, and proposes actionable solutions to amplify its role as a responsible fisheries nation within the PSMA framework. Findings indicate that China’s accession aligns with its national agenda to modernize distant-water fisheries under the “ecological civilization” paradigm, aiming to bolster its influence in global fisheries governance, strengthen multilateral cooperation, and advance contributions to sustainable use of fishery resources. The analysis reveals persistent challenges in four domains: (1) incomplete domestic legal frameworks to meet PSMA obligations; (2) insufficient port-state management systems and enforcement capacities; (3) fragmented international coordination mechanisms; and (4) structural gaps between industrial expansion and sustainability goals. To address these, the study advocates a dual-track strategy. Domestically, priorities include legal and institutional reforms to harmonize with PSMA requirements, enhanced capacity building, and industry modernization. Internationally, China should lead in establishing regional port-state coordination platforms, institutionalize data-sharing partnerships, and promote equitable rulemaking within PSMA. These measures would enhance compliance while advancing China’s dual objectives of fostering sustainable fisheries and solidifying its role as a responsible global fishing contributor.

We examine the ecotoxic risk classification of ballast water treatment chemicals by integrating global datasets—ECOTOX from the U.S. EPA and GISIS from the IMO—using a multivariate approach. The study aims to provide a practical decision-support tool to assist in ecological compliance, early warning, and regulatory prioritization. Grounded in ecological risk theory and precautionary policy frameworks, our work bridges empirical toxicological thresholds (e.g., LC50, NOEC, BCF) with practical decision-making systems for maritime chemical regulation. We apply Principal Component Analysis (PCA) to a curated dataset of 37 ballast water substances across three key dimensions: acute toxicity (LC50), chronic toxicity (NOEC), and bioaccumulation potential (BCF). A scoring matrix is then developed to construct a chemical risk heatmap supported by decision support system (DSS) logic. Notably, we observe that 43.24% of chemicals fall into the high-risk category, while only 8.11% qualify as low-risk. PCA explains 73.63% of the data variance with just two components, supporting dimensionality reduction without significant loss of ecological insight. A closer look at substances like Dibromoacetic acid and Dichloroacetonitrile reveals alarming risk profiles with high BCF and low NOEC values—chemicals that current regulations may be overlooking. Surprisingly, some widely used oxidizing agents demonstrate latent chronic toxicity previously underestimated. This finding may reflect policy inertia in updating risk evaluation metrics post-BWM Convention. Our findings contribute to both theoretical refinement in multivariate ecotoxicology modeling and policy design by suggesting a data-driven classification framework for Port State Control (PSC) and IMO risk flags. The visual heatmap tool further enables early-warning applications in smart port ecosystems. This study introduces a novel integration of ECOTOX–GISIS datasets using PCA for ecological risk visualization. Unlike prior works relying solely on laboratory thresholds or qualitative review, our approach enables real-time chemical risk ranking and supports cross-jurisdictional ballast water compliance. The methodological blend of theory and application provides a replicable model for other maritime pollutants in ASEAN and beyond.

The concept of competition is used in many areas from economy to health. As in all sectors, there is competition in the maritime transport industry. Although various Regional Memoranda of Understanding (MoU) have created risk assessment indexes for risk profile calculation, an index to measure competition in maritime transportation has not yet been used in the literature. Ships must successfully pass the inspections they face within the framework of international rules to maintain their commercial existence. The aim of this article is to provide a new perspective on measuring competition between ship types based on the results of inspections in maritime literature. In this context, for the first time in literature, the Ship Inspection Competition Index (SICI) is defined to examine the competition of ship types, flag states, recognized organizations, and ships subject to other inspection regimes. The SICI analysis was conducted using United States Coast Guard (USCG) Port State Control inspection results between 2020 and 2023. The results showed that tankers are more competitive than other ship types. At the same time, a competitiveness analysis of recognized organizations found that one organization was perfectly competitive (SICI = 0.0) compared to others. In the study, Cronbach's Alpha reliability test was conducted, and the result was 0.943 for the deficiency-based measure and 0.976 for the detention-based measure. Both results indicate a high level of reliability. It is considered that this study may provide valuable insights for future research.

For accurate and reliable monitoring, compliance monitoring devices (CMDs) in Port State Control must meet strict and uniform quality standards. This study evaluates how effectively CMDs, using variable fluorescence (VF) and fluorescein diacetate (FDA) technologies, detect live organisms in the 10–50 μm size range. Employing a detailed analytical framework, we analyzed key performance indicators, including accuracy, precision, sensitivity, specificity, trueness, detection limits, and reliability by comparing CMD outputs to those of traditional microscopic methods. Reliability assessments revealed that VF-type CMD and FDA-type CMD performed robustly, with a stability rate of 99% for both, surpassing the 90% verification threshold. Precision analysis indicated an average CV exceeding 0.25; however, some samples, especially those below the D-2 standard, achieved a CV of less than 0.25. Concordance evaluations revealed that VF-CMDs and FDA-CMDs achieved rates of 63% and 55%, respectively, falling short of the 80% verification standard and underscoring the need for further calibration or optimization. Structural equation modeling shows that organism density significantly influences CMD performance. These findings underscore the challenges of accurately detecting low organism concentrations, further complicated by biological diversity and environmental variability. Despite their limitations in assessing ballast water compliance, CMDs are effective initial screening tools.

ABSTRACT Port state control (PSC) inspections are essential for identifying substandard ships, enhancing safety, protecting the marine environment, and safeguarding crew welfare. Yet, correlations between ship features and deficiencies remain underexplored. This study develops a deficiency analysis framework using the Apriori algorithm to mine association rules between ship particulars and deficiencies, as well as among deficiencies. Using Paris MoU data, the results reveal overlooked deficiency clusters and ship type–deficiency patterns. The framework supports more targeted high-risk ship selection, improves PSC efficiency, and contributes to predictive models, maritime digitalization, and smart port development.

Illegal, unreported, and unregulated (IUU) fishing threatens the sustainability of fisheries and communities dependent on them. The Port State Measures Agreement (PSMA) is a key tool for combatting IUU fishing by foreign fleets, requiring standardized inspections, information sharing, and port denial. Using satellite data, we characterized how PSMA has affected high seas vessel behavior and identify opportunities to strengthen its impact. PSMA adoption has increased travel distances to the nearest ports in States not Party to PSMA and channeled more fishing effort to domestic and PSMA Party ports. However, domestic fishing fleets need greater attention because they constituted 66% of port visits in 2021. Among reflagged vessels, we also found a 30% increase in visits to PSMA ports by vessels shifting to domestic flags after PSMA entered into force, allowing them to avoid PSMA requirements for foreign vessels. Our results highlight the centrality of implementing consistent, effective port State measures across foreign and domestic fleets to address IUU fishing risks.

ABSTRACT Port State Control (PSC) serves as a crucial mechanism for enforcing maritime regulations and safeguarding against substandard shipping practices. Effective inspections by well-trained port state control officers (PSCOs) are essential to ensure compliance without causing undue delays or detentions, although some shipowners may attempt to evade inspections, complicating enforcement efforts. This review examines scholarly publications from 2017 and 2024 to identify prevailing research themes and methodological approaches in PSC studies. Four primary research themes emerged: (i) evaluation of the PSC regimes, (ii) strategies for effectively targeting substandard vessels, (iii) determinants of PSC inspection outcomes, and (iv) the impact of PSC inspections. A synthesis of these themes revealed nine critical issues, including disparities in regional enforcement practices, inconsistencies in inspector training and legal frameworks, limitations of current risk assessment models, data imbalance and generalizability challenges, integration of artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning in inspection planning, influence of vessel characteristics and inspection history, impact of external shocks, effectiveness in improving compliance and safety, and stakeholder perceptions and enforcement gaps. The review identifies key knowledge gaps and offers directions for future research to strengthen PSC practices and enhance global maritime safety.

Abstract The international shipping industry played a role in climate change, responsible for a substantial share of GHG emissions, yet remains insuf9iciently regulated in terms of control and obligations. This article explores the evolving legal landscape in maritime environmental governance, particularly following recent advisory opinions from ITLOS and ICJ, which classify anthropogenic GHG emissions as a form of marine pollution under UNCLOS 1982. The discussion highlights the strategic role of Port State jurisdiction and Port State Control (PSC) under existing legal instruments like the UNCLOS 1982 and Annex VI of MARPOL. The article further considers how customary international law principles, including sovereignty and the obligation erga omnes reinforce state unilateral or regional enforcement efforts beyond the scope of existing international regulations. Ultimately, the paper argues for a more robust and cohesive legal approach that empowers Port States, strengthens liability allocation, and supports global climate mitigation objectives especially in international shipping sector.

Dynamics of port state control and impact on ship safety: Case studies of Tokyo and Indian Ocean Memorandum of understanding

Abstract The maritime sector facilitates 80% of global trade but contributes 3% of greenhouse gas emissions. To address climate challenges, Indonesia has enacted laws like Law 16/2016 (Paris Agreement ratification), Law 32/2009 (environmental protection), and Ministerial Decree KM 8/2023 to meet Nationally Determined Contributions (NDC) targets. However, evolving International Maritime Organization (IMO) regulations, such as MARPOL Annex VI and the Energy Efficiency Existing Ship Index (EEXI), raise concerns about potential misalignment between national and international standards, risking Port State Control restrictions. This study evaluates whether KM 8/2023 aligns with IMO regulations, identifying gaps that may hinder compliance. Through comparative policy analysis, legal benchmarking, and stakeholder engagement—including the Directorate General of Sea Transportation, shipping companies, and port authorities—it seeks to improve Indonesia’s sustainable maritime transport framework. The findings will highlight key areas for regulatory and operational enhancements, ensuring Indonesia remains competitive while advancing climate goals. By bridging policy gaps, this research supports Indonesia in meeting global standards, strengthening maritime sustainability, and fulfilling its climate commitments.

Abstrak: Work safety on board ships is a fundamental aspect in supporting smooth shipping operations. This study aims to identify the factors causing the suboptimal installation of gangway safety nets on the MT. Harmony Chemist ship when docked, analyze the impact caused, and formulate improvement strategies in accordance with international safety standards. A descriptive qualitative approach was used with data collection techniques through observation, interviews with key crew members including the Officer, Second Officer, and Bosun, and supported by documentation analysis. Data analysis was conducted using the Root Cause Analysis (RCA) method and the 5 Why approach, as well as problem ranking using the USG (Urgency, Seriousness, Growth) method. The research results indicate that the primary causes of suboptimal installation of gangway safety nets are the failure to conduct equipment suitability checks prior to use, the absence of a clear marking system, and weak communication among deck crew members. These conditions have implications for increased workplace accident risks, operational obstacles, and warnings from Port State Control (PSC) authorities. The USG analysis identified ineffective communication as the highest priority factor that needs to be improved. Recommendations for improvement include strengthening the communication system, conducting regular safety meetings, labeling damaged equipment, implementing double-check procedures, and conducting periodic inspections in accordance with the ISM Code and ISGOTT standards. This study underscores the importance of fully implementing a safety culture to achieve safe, professional, and internationally compliant ship operations.

Machine learning approaches for identifying substandard ships in port state control inspections with imbalanced data

This study developed a model to predict ships with high deficiency risk under Port State Control (PSC) through machine learning techniques, particularly the Random Forest algorithm. The study utilized actual ship inspection data from the Port of Singapore, comprehensively considering various operational and safety indicators of ships, including but not limited to flag state, ship age, past deficiencies, and detention history. By analyzing these factors in depth, this research enhances the efficiency and accuracy of PSC inspections, provides decision support for port authorities, and offers strategic guidance for shipping companies to comply with international safety standards. During the research process, I first conducted detailed data preprocessing, including data cleaning and feature selection, to ensure the effectiveness of model training. Using the Random Forest algorithm, I identified key factors influencing the detention risk of ships and established a risk prediction model accordingly. The model validation results indicated that factors such as ship age, tonnage, company performance, and flag state significantly affect whether a ship exhibits a high deficiency rate. In addition, this study explored the potential and limitations of applying the Random Forest model in predicting high deficiency risk under PSC, and proposed future research directions, including further model optimization and the development of real-time prediction systems. By achieving these goals, I hope to provide valuable experience for other global shipping hubs, promote higher international maritime safety standards, and contribute to the sustainable development of the global shipping industry. This research not only highlights the importance of machine learning in the maritime domain but also demonstrates the potential of data-driven decision-making in improving ship safety management and port inspection efficiency. It is hoped that this study will inspire more maritime practitioners and researchers to explore advanced data analytics techniques to address the increasingly complex challenges of global shipping.

Investment in chemical/oil tankers is crucial for enhancing operational performance and maintaining competitiveness in the global shipping industry. The background of this research is the need to provide solutions to challenges in ship investments that often fail to meet targets, whether in technical performance, compliance with international regulations, or cost efficiency. These conditions affect the competitiveness of companies, as most chemical/oil tanker fleets are over 15 years old, require high maintenance costs, and pose risks of detention by Port State Control (PSC) and rejection by major oil companies. The methodological approach is the integration of Decision-Making Trial and Evaluation Laboratory (DEMATEL) and Analytic Network Process (ANP) to analyze the selection of chemical/oil tanker ship investments. DEMATEL is used to identify cause-effect relationships so that dominant factors can be prioritized. Once the dominant factors are obtained, ANP processes the relationships and dependencies among criteria in the network model and determines more precise weighting. Subsequently, priority calculations are carried out by constructing a supermatrix that encapsulates the relationships among elements. This supermatrix is analyzed to produce final priorities for determining the best alternative. The research data were collected through questionnaires and interviews with stakeholders, including top management and experts. DEMATEL revealed key influencing factors such as Initial Investment, Operating Costs, Regulatory Compliance, Market and Geopolitical Risks, and Technological Risks. These factors are analyzed in the ANP method to obtain a model, network, and pairwise comparisons.

Passenger ships are a growing economic industry worldwide that has faced criticism due to their environmental impact, as they are major wastewater producers in the seas. Especially, ships with larger capacities have a huge impact on the marine environment. With thousands of passengers and crew on board, passenger ships produce significant amounts of waste that must be properly handled to protect the marine environment and comply with regulations. Current international regulations prohibit sewage into the sea within a specified distance from the nearest land. This regulation only applies to vessels of 400GT and above engaged in international voyages and carrying a minimum of 15 persons on board. It does not address ships carrying fewer persons onboard. However, there are smaller vessels around discharging wastewaters that are not subject to these legal regulations. When pollution reaches the ocean, it adversely impacts marine ecosystems. Therefore, current regulations and authorities such as flag states, port states and classification societies fail to adequately protect the marine environment in the high seas. This article addresses the impact of releasing untreated sewage into the sea and the current regulations that control pollution of the sea by sewage. Meanwhile, in recent years, Artificial Intelligence (AI) has brought a revolutionary wave of transformation to the shipping industry, such as smart communication systems and efficient waste management. This article will introduce current prevention methods that address the pollution from sewage problem, it aims to identify and tackle the question of whether current regulations are sufficient to protect the marine environment especially concerning ship waste. Lastly, the study will examine how AI enhances the efficiency, reliability and sustainability of sewage systems on passenger ships.