Chamois Populations Research Articles

Feeding ecology of alpine chamois living in sympatry with other ruminant species

The populations of Alpine chamois Rupicapra rupicapra rupicapra are currently not at risk of extinction, but local population declines have been observed in some areas. Competition with other herbivore species may be one of the causes for this decline. The present research aims at describing the autumnal diet and preferences of Alpine chamois living in sympatry with red deer Cervus elaphus and roe deer Capreolus capreolus in central Italian Alps and to verify the presence of spatial and diet overlap among these herbivore species. We analyzed the rumen content of 35 samples collected during the hunting season from animals culled in Val Fontana. The results were integrated by data previously collected on rumen content of red deer and roe deer and on space use of the three herbivore species in the same study area. We identified 26 species and 15 genera belonging to 21 plant families of the 51 available in the study area. Monocotyledon families were the most frequently represented in chamois diet composition (78.11%), followed by Ericaceae (5.30%), Betulaceae (4.32%) and Cupressaceae (3.37%). All results showed similar diet between genders. Chamois diet was more similar to red deer than to roe deer diet. The diet selection index (W) showed that on the east‐facing side of the valley some species (Calluna vulgaris: Wm = 5.27; Juniperus communis: Wm = 4.24; Loiseleuria procumbens: Wm = 4.82) were selected above their availability, perhaps as a consequence of the higher spatial overlap on this side between chamois and red deer, which make similar use of vegetal resources. Although competition among species is unlikely, due to the low population densities, over‐exploitation of food resources and food niche overlap may be future limiting factors for local chamois population, and they should be taken into account for the proper management and control of wild and domestic ruminants.

Huftierbestände und Verbissintensitäten nach der Luchswiederansiedlung im Kanton St. Gallen

Ungulate populations and browsing intensities following the reintroduction of lynx in the canton of St. Gallen In the context of the project “Lynx resettlement north-east Switzerland” (LUNO), the Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx L.) was reintroduced in the canton of St. Gallen from 2001. As a consequence of reduced roe deer (Capreolus capreolus L.) and Alpine chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra L.) population sizes, one goal was the reduction of browsing intensities in young forest stands. This study investigates interactions between the levels of this trophic cascade by means of data on lynx distribution, roe deer and chamois populations (hunting statistics and population estimations) as well as browsing intensities. The results have shown significantly reduced roe deer and chamois population sizes in the years after lynx reintroduction. The effect of lynx could have worked cumulatively with factors like hunting, weather conditions and diseases (chamois). Within the chamois population, the lynx probably affected primarily the forest chamois, although before and after the lynx presence other causal reasons have been responsible for population decreases. Furthermore, there was noted a significantly positive relationship between hunting statistics (as an indicator of local ungulate population sizes) and browsing intensities, although the size of local ungulate populations was one influencing factor among many more. The browsing intensity of silver fir (Abies alba Mill.) was significantly reduced after lynx reintroduction in the core area of lynx distribution. All results have shown significant correlations and suggest an indirect influence of lynx on browsing intensities of silver fir. However, causal connections should be analysed in further studies.

Border Disease Virus: An Exceptional Driver of Chamois Populations Among Other Threats.

Though it is accepted that emerging infectious diseases are a threat to planet biodiversity, little information exists about their role as drivers of species extinction. Populations are also affected by natural catastrophes and other pathogens, making it difficult to estimate the particular impact of emerging infectious diseases. Border disease virus genogroup 4 (BDV-4) caused a previously unreported decrease in populations of Pyrenean chamois (Rupicapra pyrenaica pyrenaica) in Spain. Using a population viability analysis, we compared probabilities of extinction of a virtual chamois population affected by winter conditions, density dependence, keratoconjunctivitis, sarcoptic mange, and BD outbreaks. BD-affected populations showed double risk of becoming extinct in 50 years, confirming the exceptional ability of this virus to drive chamois populations.

The Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVI) as a proxy for diet quality and composition in a mountain ungulate

In recent years, the use of satellite-derived vegetation indices has become a powerful tool to collect information on vegetation dynamics in a broad range of ecosystems worldwide. However, the utility of these indices as indicators of the diet composition and quality of herbivore mammals has not yet been established. This work focuses on exploring such relationships analysing four years of records of monthly Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVI, a MOD13 satellite-derived index) and diet composition and quality of two populations of chamois (Rupicapra pyrenaica pyrenaica) in the Eastern Pyrenees (Spain). Our results revealed that 68.4% and 53.3% of diet composition and quality of chamois can be explained by EVI values in the green-up season (spring) and green senescence (winter season), respectively. In both periods, EVI was related mainly to diets low in fibre (cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin) and heather (Calluna vulgaris) and high in nitrogen due to the consumption of Festuca, Forbs and Trifolium. During the summer season however, the EVI was not significantly related to diet components of chamois. A significant inter-year variability in the diets of the chamois was also observed. To conclude, remote sensing is appropriate to assess temporal variations in dietary components of mountain ungulates, and could be used as a component of monitoring large herbivore populations in management programmes.

A novel epidemiological model to better understand and predict the observed seasonal spread of Pestivirus in Pyrenean chamois populations.

Seasonal variations in individual contacts give rise to a complex interplay between host demography and pathogen transmission. This is particularly true for wild populations, which highly depend on their natural habitat. These seasonal cycles induce variations in pathogen transmission. The seasonality of these biological processes should therefore be considered to better represent and predict pathogen spread. In this study, we sought to better understand how the seasonality of both the demography and social contacts of a mountain ungulate population impacts the spread of a pestivirus within, and the dynamics of, this population. We propose a mathematical model to represent this complex biological system. The pestivirus can be transmitted both horizontally through direct contact and vertically in utero. Vertical transmission leads to abortion or to the birth of persistently infected animals with a short life expectancy. Horizontal transmission involves a complex dynamics because of seasonal variations in contact among sexes and age classes. We performed a sensitivity analysis that identified transmission rates and disease-related mortality as key parameters. We then used data from a long-term demographic and epidemiological survey of the studied population to estimate these mostly unknown epidemiological parameters. Our model adequately represents the system dynamics, observations and model predictions showing similar seasonal patterns. We show that the virus has a significant impact on population dynamics, and that persistently infected animals play a major role in the epidemic dynamics. Modeling the seasonal dynamics allowed us to obtain realistic prediction and to identify key parameters of transmission.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13567-015-0218-8) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Unimodal activity pattern in forest-dwelling chamois: typical behaviour or interspecific avoidance?

Daily activity rhythms in mammals are influenced by a range of biotic and abiotic factors. During warm periods, mountain ungulates living in open areas typically show a bimodal pattern of activity rhythms, with peaks at dawn and dusk. To date, however, little is known about the activity patterns of mountain ungulates living in forested habitats and in areas where large predators are present. Using camera traps over a 6-month period between May and October of 2012, we investigated the activity pattern of a chamois population dwelling in the forests of the northern Mount Velebit region (Croatia) and its overlap with the activity patterns of potential predators (brown bear, grey wolf) and competitors (wild boar). Chamois showed a peak of activity between 5:00 a.m. and 7:00 a.m., when 65 % of individuals were photographed. Contrary to previous literature on chamois, we found evidence for a unimodal pattern of activity with a peak in the early morning hours: At a seasonal level, this pattern remained fairly consistent, though the activity at dusk increased in the warmest months. The main peak of activity occurred during periods of decreased activity of potential predators and competitors, and chamois exhibited the least tolerance for overlap with grey wolf. Further studies are needed to clarify whether this pattern is typical of forest-dwelling populations or if it reflects a temporal niche shift, possibly as a strategy to avoid predators.

The two sides of border disease in Pyrenean chamois (Rupicapra pyrenaica): silent persistence and population collapse.

In 2001, border disease virus (BDV) was identified as the cause of a previously unreported disease in Pyrenean chamois (Rupicapra pyrenaica) in Spain. Since then, the disease has caused a dramatic decrease, and in some cases collapse, of chamois populations and has expanded to nearly the entire distribution area in the Pyrenees. Chamois BDV was characterized as BDV-4 genotype and experimental studies confirmed that it was the primary agent of the disease. The infection has become endemic in the Central and Eastern Pyrenees. However, while most Pyrenean chamois populations have been severely affected by the disease, others have not, despite the circulation of BDV in apparently healthy individuals, suggesting the existence of different viral strategies for persisting in the host population. Changes in the interplay of pathogen, host and environmental factors may lead to the formation of different disease patterns. A key factor influencing disease emergence may be pathogen invasiveness through viral mutation. Host factors, such as behavior, immunity at the population level and genetic variability, may also have driven different epidemiological scenarios. Climatic and other ecological factors may have favored secondary infections, such as pneumonia, that under particular circumstances have been major contributing factors in the high mortality observed in some areas.

Horn growth patterns in Alpine chamois

The analysis of horn growth may provide important information about the allocation of metabolic resources to secondary sexual traits. Depending on the selective advantages offered by horn size during intra- and inter-specific interactions, ungulates may show different investment in horn development, and growth variations within species may be influenced by several parameters, such as sex, age, or resource availability. We investigated the horn growth patterns in two hunted populations of Alpine chamois (Rupicapra r. rupicapra) in the Central Italian Alps. We tested the role of individual heterogeneity on the growth pattern and explored the variation in annulus length as a function of different factors (sex, age, hunting location, cohort). We then investigated the mechanisms underlying horn growth trajectories to test for the occurrence of compensatory or recovery growth and their potential differences between sexes and populations. Annulus length varied as a function of sex, age of individuals and, marginally, hunting location; no effect of cohort or individual heterogeneity was detected. Male and female chamois showed compensatory horn growth within the first 5½ years of life, though the partial convergence of horn trajectories in chamois suggests that this mechanisms would best be described as ‘recovery growth’. Compensation rates were greater in males than in females, while only compensatory growth rates up to 2½ years of age were different in the two populations. Besides confirming the sex- and age-dependent pattern of horn development, our study suggests that the mechanism of recovery growth supports the hypothesis of horn size as a weakly selected sexual trait in male and female chamois. Furthermore, the greater compensation rates in horn growth shown by male chamois possibly suggest selective effects of hunting on age at first reproduction, while different compensation rates between populations may suggest the occurrence of some plasticity in resource allocation to sexual traits in relation to different environments.

The use of block counts, mark‐resight and distance sampling to estimate population size of a mountain‐dwelling ungulate

AbstractPopulation size estimates represent indispensable tools for many research programs and for conservation or management issues. Mountain ungulates in open areas are often surveyed through ground counts that normally underestimate population size. While the use of sample counts is desirable, few studies have compared different probabilistic approaches to estimate population size in thistaxon. We compared the size estimates of a male population of Alpine chamois using mark‐resight and line transect sampling methods, while block counts were used to obtain the minimum number of males alive in the study area. Surveys were conducted within the Gran Paradiso National Park (Italy), in August–September 2013, using block counts along purposely selected trails and vantage points, mark‐resight over 5 consecutive resightings from vantage points and trails, and line transect sampling along 12 transects repeated 8 times. Block counts yielded a minimum number of males alive in the population ofn= 72 individuals. This value was greater than the upper bound of the 95 % confidence interval achieved using line transect sampling {n= 54, CV = 14 % [95 % CI (40, 71)]} while mark‐resight yielded a more realistic result ofn= 93 individuals {CV = 18 % [95 % CI (63, 137)]}. Our results suggest that line transect sampling performed poorly in the Alpine environment, leading to underestimates of population size, likely due to violations of some assumptions imposed by the rugged nature of the terrain. The mark‐resight yielded lower precision, possibly due to the limited number of marked individuals and resighting occasions, but it provided robustness and accurate estimates as marks were evenly distributed among animals.

Extremely low genetic variation in endangered Tatra chamois and evidence for hybridization with an introduced Alpine population

The Tatra chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra tatrica) is an endangered endemic subspecies living exclusively in the Tatra Mountains (Slovakia and southern Poland). In order to protect this evolutionary significant unit, a back-up population was established in the nearby Low Tatra Mts. in the 1970s. Before the subspecific status of Tatra chamois had been recognised, however, non-native Alpine chamois (R. r. rupicapra) were introduced to two adjacent mountain ranges. In order to assess their present conservation status, therefore, we undertook a thorough genetic analysis of all Slovak chamois populations (n = 363; 20 microsatellites, SRY gene, MHC class II DRB gene and mtDNA). We found low genetic variation and a high level of inbreeding in all populations, the least variable being the native Tatra chamois population (only one MHC allele), which we ascribe primarily to population bottlenecks. Introduced Alpine chamois showed greater variation, despite originating from few founders. One population, however, founded by just six individuals, also showed highest inbreeding. Male-biased introgressive hybridization between the back-up Low Tatra population and both introduced Alpine populations was detected using several approaches, with up to 19 % of the genome introgressed from Alpine chamois. Such hybridization can be viewed ambiguously as regards conservation in that, though it disrupts the integrity of the unique Tatra chamois genome in the back-up population it also improves its very low genetic variation and decreases inbreeding level, with no obvious signs of outbreeding depression.

Senescence in breeding success of female Alpine chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra): the role of female quality and age.

Although numerous studies have reported reproductive senescence in wild animal populations, we still know very little on inter-individual differences in rates of ageing and on the factors accounting for these differences. To investigate age-related variation in breeding success in a natural population of Alpine chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra), we used 15 years of data obtained by monitoring individual ear-tagged females. Analyses at the population level confirmed the occurrence of a decline in female breeding success, which is most noticeable from 9 years of age onward. Using an age-reverse approach, we showed that senescence in female breeding success occurs at the same age, since only very old individuals (older than 16 years) showed a decline in breeding success in the years preceding death. Interestingly, we also found evidence that 'success comes from success', as females that gave birth in a given year were more likely to procreate again in the following year. Moreover, results showed that discrepancies between successful and unsuccessful individuals tend to become more relevant in the oldest age classes. There was no evidence of a terminal allocation. These results emphasize the importance of age-dependent effects and individual quality in shaping reproductive senescence in a wild long-lived ungulate.

Spatial and temporal explorative analysis of sarcoptic mange in Alpine chamois ( Rupicapra r. rupicapra )

The sarcoptic mange epizootic affecting chamois in the Dolomites Alps since 1995 has risen considerable concern in a management and conservation perspective, due to its strong impact on chamois and ibex populations. A remarkable amount of data has been collected by different wildlife research and management institutions, in order to analyze mange patterns and develop possible strategies to control the disease. The present study is aimed at providing a population-related figure of the spatial and temporal dynamics of clinical sarcoptic mange in alpine chamois, proposing an approach in which relevant basic concepts and parameters, as the definition of the epidemic front and its spreading speed, can be estimated and framed. The epidemic front was referred to the different mountain massifs, corresponding to well established management units of the chamois in the study area; moreover, the mange-related mortality peak at the massif level was used (in substitution of the index case/s) for temporal analysis of the disease spreading. Two speeds of the front have been estimated: a first raw average speed of about 3.38 km/year, and a second refined speed of 4.64 ± 3.12 km/year, more consistent to the variability in the field. The time series analysis showed that the impact of mange increases over the late winter months, reaching a peak in early spring. Our results strengthen the conclusions of previous studies, proposing a new frame to include other studies in progress on the alpine chamois- Sarcoptes interactions. Download the complete issue.

Physiological response to etho-ecological stressors in male Alpine chamois: timescale matters!

From a life history perspective, glucocorticoids secreted by the neuroendocrine system, integrating different sources of stress through an adaptive feedback mechanism, may have important consequences on individual fitness. Although stress responses have been the object of several investigations, few studies have explored the role of proximate mechanisms responsible for the potential trade-offs between physiological stress and life history traits integrating social and environmental stressors. In 2011 and 2012, we collected data on faecal cortisol metabolites (FCM) in a marked male population of Alpine chamois, within the Gran Paradiso National Park (Italy). Using a model selection approach we analysed the effect of potential etho-ecological stressors such as age, social status (territorial vs. non-territorial males), minimum temperature, snow depth and precipitation on FCM variation. To correctly interpret environmentally and socially induced stress responses, we conducted model selections over multiple temporal scales defined a priori: year, cold months, spring, warm months, mating season. Over the year, FCM levels showed a negative relationship with minimum temperature, but altogether, climatic stressors had negligible effects on glucocorticoid secretion, possibly owing to good adaptations of chamois to severe weather conditions. Age was negatively related to FCM during the rut, possibly due to greater experience of older males in agonistic contests. Social status was an important determinant of FCM excretion: while both the 'stress of subordination' and the 'stress of domination' hypotheses received some support in spring and during the mating season, respectively, previous data suggest that only the latter may have detrimental fitness consequences on male chamois.

Effects of selective harvest of non‐lactating females on chamois population dynamics

Summary In large mammals, regulations or hunter preference often lead to selective harvest of non‐lactating females, with unknown impacts upon population growth. Because female survival has very high elasticity effects on population growth, an assessment of the magnitude and selectivity of female harvest is crucial to understand population dynamics of sport‐hunted ungulates. Hunting accounts for most mortality of adult chamois Rupicapra rupicapra and regulations typically discourage the harvest of lactating females as orphaned kids have reduced survival rates. We used an individual‐based model, produced from empirical data, to explore the effects of selective removal of non‐lactating females on chamois population dynamics. Harvest intensity had much stronger effects on female population dynamics than selectivity for reproductive status. Selective harvest of non‐lactating females had very weak effects on population size and then only at a high harvest rate and under strong selectivity. Assuming no difference in winter survival between orphaned and non‐orphaned kids, harvest of non‐lactating females decreased population size at equilibrium compared to a random female harvest, whereas the opposite was true when assuming 50% lower survival of orphaned kids. Selective harvest of non‐lactating females may avoid the negative effects of orphaning on juvenile survival, but increases mortality of pre‐reproductive females that normally enjoy high survival and have high reproductive value. Synthesis and applications. The impact of selective harvest of non‐lactating females upon population dynamics is likely to be more affected by the age structure of lactating and non‐lactating females rather than by the survival of orphan and non‐orphan juveniles. High harvest of pre‐reproductive females has undesirable effects on population dynamics, which must be considered alongside any cultural preferences of hunters when developing hunting regulations or policies.

Acute Die-off of Chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra) in the Eastern Austrian Alps due to Bacterial Bronchopneumonia withPasteurellaceae

Monitoring circulating pathogens in wildlife populations is important in evaluating causes and sources of disease as well as understanding transmission between wild and domestic animals. In spring 2010, a sudden die-off in a chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra) population sharing habitat with livestock occurred in northeastern Austria. Nineteen animals were submitted for examination. Necropsy and pathohistologic and bacteriologic results yielded lesions associated with Pasteurellaceae species. Additional testing included enterobacterial repetitive intergenic consensus and random amplification of polymorphic DNA PCR analysis to evaluate the circulating strains. The isolated strains were most closely related to Mannheimia glucosida and Bibersteinia trehalosi. Reports of mass mortalities in chamois due to pneumonia have been reported previously in the northern Alpine area of Italy. To the authors' knowledge, this is the first report of acute mortality due to strains of Mannheimia and Bibersteinia in Austrian chamois.

Toxoplasmosis in natural populations of ungulates in France: prevalence and spatiotemporal variations.

Toxoplasmosis is characterized by a complex epidemiology. The risk of infection for humans depends on their contact with infective oocysts in a contaminated environment and on the amount of tissue cysts located within consumed meat. Unfortunately, the prevalence of tissue cysts is largely unknown for game species. Although herbivorous game species are a source of infection for humans, the level of infection found in wildlife can also be used to estimate environmental contamination. The aim of this study was to estimate the prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii infection and analyze its temporal dynamics in one population of chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra), one of mouflon (Ovis gmelini musimon), and two of roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) in France, surveyed during a period of 6 to 28 years. Taking into account individual risk factors, we specifically analyzed the relationship between T. gondii prevalence and meteorological conditions that may influence oocyst survival. Serum samples from 101 chamois, 143 mouflons, and 1155 roe deer were tested for antibodies against T. gondii using the modified agglutination test (MAT), an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) assay, or both. Using MAT with a threshold of 1:6, seroprevalence was 14.7% in mouflon, 16.8% in chamois, and 43.7% in roe deer. In mouflon and roe deer, seroprevalence was positively correlated with age and/or body mass, in accordance with the hypothesis that antibodies have long-term persistence. In roe deer, seropositivity differed between the two populations and changed linearly over time between 1983 and 2010, increasing by a factor 1.75 every 10 years. Moreover, in this species, the highest prevalences were found during dry and cold years or during warm and moist years, depending on the population. Our results suggest that the risk for people to acquire infection through game meat increases over time, but with high variability according to the population of origin and meteorological conditions of the year.

Demographic characteristics, seasonal range and habitat topography of Balkan chamois population in its southernmost limit of its distribution (Giona mountain, Greece)

The annual range of Balkan chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra balcanica) in Giona mountain was found to be 5502 ha, with a low population density (2 individuals/100 ha). Seasonal range patterns varied significantly, with a minimum extent in summer and a maximum in winter (30% and 79% of the annual range, respectively). Summer stress and the rutting period might be associated with the observed aggregated distributions during the summer and autumn (core areas of 28% and 22% of seasonal ranges, respectively, defined after the Fixed Kernel Density Estimator). Chamois were found to use significantly lower altitude habitats in winter (1212 m) than in summer (2223 m), and significantly steeper slopes in winter (35°); aspect was not found to have a significant effect on habitat use. Population structure consisted of kids (21%), yearlings (8%), females (35%) and males (36%). Conservation management for the species should consider poaching, livestock competition and global warming.

Serological evidence for Parapoxvirus infection in chamois from the Tyrol regions of Austria and Italy.

Orf-virus (ORFV) is a parapoxvirus that infects small ruminants worldwide causing sporadic zoonotic infections, mainly transmitted by direct contact with sheep and goats. Following an ORFV case in a hunter of Alpine chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra), who did not report previous contact to domestic animals, a serological survey in Western Austria was conducted to assess the seroprevalence of ORFV in this species. In addition, this study also tested blood/tissue samples of chamois from different areas of the adjacent province of Bolzano/Northern Italy for antibodies against ORFV using immunofluorescence and ELISA. The observed seropositivity rates in the chamois tested on the Austrian and Italian side of the Alps were 23.5% and 9.5%, respectively, with a combined 95% confidence interval ranging from 0.0678 to 0.238. Although the prevalence was significantly lower than the one observed in Austrian sheep flocks, this study provided the first evidence that parapoxviruses have spilled over into chamois populations to a significant degree in the Tyrol regions of Austria and Italy.

Changes in wild ungulate populations in Aragon, Spain between 2001 and 2010

To update the information on the distributions of wild ungulates in Aragon, Spain, populations were surveyed based on questionnaires sent to rangers of the Government of Aragon. The data were analyzed in two five-year periods: 2001-2005 and 2006-2010. Our analysis was based on the 242 and 278 questionnaires, corresponding approximately with 80-90% answers that were analyzed in 2006 and 2011, respectively. The survey documented the presence/absence of up to eight wild ungulate species within a UTM 10x10 km grid on maps that were specific to the counties in which the rangers worked. In 2006-2010, wild boar Sus scrofa was the most widely distributed species as it occurred in all of the grid blocks. Roe deer Capreolus capreolus were documented in 89% of the grid blocks, Iberian wild goat Capra pyrenaica in 37%, red deer Cervus elaphus in 31%, Pyrenean chamois Rupicapra p. pyrenaica in 10%, feral goat Capra hircus in 8%, fallow deer Dama dama in 3%, and mouflon Ovis aries in 0.3%. The Pyrenees had the highest and the Middle Ebro Valley had the lowest diversity of ungulates. In the Iberian System, diversity was intermediate. Overall, the distribution of ungulates increased 21% between the two periods. Feral goat populations expanded the most (111%), although Iberian wild goat (61%), roe deer (50%), and red deer (4%) also expanded. The range of wild boar populations remained stable, but the ranges of chamois and fallow deer populations were reduced 6%. By 2010, typically, in most block grids three or more species of wild ungulates coexist. We recommend that ungulate populations in Aragon be surveyed at least every five years.

The influence of environmental factors on the dynamics of the size and spatial structure of the chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra caucasica) population on the Caucasian Reserve

The size and structure of the chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra caucasica) population as well as the influence of anthropogenic factors on it were studied on the Caucasian Reserve (Western Caucasus). The negative effect of the snow cover, the thickness of which differed from the usual level, is shown. The effect of winters with thick snow cover is confirmed by the relation between these factors and the proportion of yearlings in the population one year after the winter. An increased death rate of animals in winters with a deep snow cover is observed in the case when their density exceeds the optimal one. Wolf predation does not affect the chamois population on the reserve. The number of wolves increases with an increase in the chamois population density to 15–20 ind./1000 ha. The adverse impact of humans on the chamois population is manifested in the regions with motor roads. The chamois, as compared to the deer, suffers from poachers to a lesser degree because it inhabits inaccessible areas and its trophy value is low.