Pooled Cross-sectional Data Research Articles

Do immigrant women spend more time on unpaid labor? Generational differences by race, ethnicity, and household composition in household work within the United States

ABSTRACT Despite relative progress, it is an overt fact that women still take on the heavier burden of unpaid work in the household compared to men in the United States. Our study expands the horizons of previous studies by looking at women specifically and analyzes how women’s performance of unpaid labor differentiates based on various contexts such as generational status, household composition, race, and ethnicity. Using the pooled cross-sectional data from the 2011-2021 American Time Use Survey (ATUS), we test hypotheses derived from an absolute resources perspective and a structural perspective to examine migrant generational differences among married, cohabiting, and single women as well as investigate the intra-group differences of racial and ethnic groups. From our descriptive analysis and ordinary least squares (OLS) regression analyses, we find support for the structural perspective for housework, as the generational differences remain even after controlling for socioeconomic factors, but only for first-generation married women. However, socioeconomic factors account for the differences between cohabiting or single first-generation women, which is supported by the absolute resources perspective. Our intra-group analysis by racial and ethnic groups yielded similar findings but found that Hispanic and Asian first-generation women take on a larger proportion of housework, relative to later-generation women.

Work hours and the risk of hypertension: the case of Indonesia

BackgroundIndividuals working excessive hours is a worldwide phenomenon. In Indonesia, over 32 million people work more than 40 h per week, contributing to around 26% of the workforce. Excessive working may affect health, increasing the risk of cardiovascular diseases such as hypertension. Hypertension affected around 34% of Indonesian adults, approximately 63.3 million people and led to about 427,000 deaths in 2018, and the prevalence remains high at 29.2% in 2023. This study aims to analyze the relationship between work hours and the risk of hypertension among working individuals in Indonesia.MethodsThis study used a pooled cross-sectional data from the Indonesian Family Life Survey (IFLS) wave 4 (2007) and wave 5 (2014) and performed a logit regression analysis to examine the likelihood of a working individual having hypertension based on the individual’s work hours. A dummy variable of hypertension is created based on the result of blood pressure measurement. The sample consists of 22,500 working individuals in Indonesia. This study controlled for job characteristics, sociodemographic status and health-behavioral risk factors such as BMI and smoking behavior, and performed additional regression analyses for alternative models to check for robustness.ResultsOur findings showed that there is a higher probability of having hypertension for workers who work longer hours by 0.06% points for each additional hour of work (p < 0.01). Other factors such as physical activity and smoking behavior have also been demonstrated to be significantly correlated to the risk of hypertension.ConclusionsThis study revealed a positive relationship between work hours and hypertension. Although this study cannot suggest causality, the strongly significant correlation may provide an idea and an overview regarding the risk of hypertension among working individuals in Indonesia. The Indonesian government could consider conducting further studies to implement and promote flexible working arrangements initiatives and incentive programs to improve workers’ health outcomes.

An analysis of the impact of digital technology adoption on the income of high quality farmers in production and operating.

Digital technology is shaping our traditional agriculture in unprecedented ways. As a new engine to empower farmers and promote common prosperity in rural areas, the development of the digital economy can help revitalize rural industries, providing strong support for increasing industrial value-added income and farmers' income levels. Based on 676 pooled cross-section data of high-quality farmers in China Guangdong Province from 2020-2021, the article empirically examines the impact of digital technology adoption on the production and business income of high-quality farmers and explores its mechanism of action, based on theoretical analysis and using the ERM model. It is found that the use of digital technology helps to increase the income of high quality farmers in production and business, but effects vary for different income levels and different types of high quality farmers. In addition, tests of the mechanism of action suggest that the introduction of digital technologies can mitigate the negative impact of market distance on the income of high quality farmers in production and business. After applying variable substitution, model replacement, and propensity score matching (PSM) for robustness checks, the research findings still hold true. Therefore, efforts should be made to speed up the upgrading of rural digital technology and other infrastructure, increase training for high quality farmers to improve their digital literacy through multiple channels, for the better marketing of agricultural products.

Balancing the scales? Evaluating the impact of results-based financing on maternal health outcomes and related inequality of opportunity in Zimbabwe

This study evaluates the impact of results-based financing (RBF) on maternal health outcomes and the inequality of opportunity (IOP) in these outcomes in Zimbabwe. We employ a difference-in-differences approach that leverages the staggered implementation of the programme across 60 districts, exploiting temporal variation in the introduction of RBF and individual-level variation in birth timing. Our analysis uses nationally representative, pooled cross-sectional data from the 2005/2006, 2010/2011, and 2015 Zimbabwe demographic and health surveys. Employing the extended two-way fixed effects (ETWFE) estimator to address biases associated with staggered rollouts, we find significant positive effects of RBF on maternal health outcomes. The programme is associated with an increase in the number of prenatal care visits by 0.185 units (p < 0.01), first-trimester care by 7.7 percentage points (pp) (p < 0.01), facility births by 8.6 pp (p < 0.01), and professional delivery assistance by 3.4 pp (p < 0.01), while reducing C-section rates by 1.3 pp (p < 0.01). Additionally, RBF is associated with reductions in IOP in prenatal care visits, early prenatal care, facility births, and professional delivery assistance by 3.8, 1.3, 8.4, and 4.9 pp (p < 0.01), respectively. These findings underscore the potential of RBF to enhance maternal health outcomes and promote health equity. Integrating equity considerations into health system strengthening initiatives is essential. Policymakers should ensure that health interventions improve access and balance opportunities across various socio-economic and demographic groups. This evidence suggests that RBF schemes can improve access to and equity in healthcare services, particularly in low-income settings such as Zimbabwe.

Prevalence of Cigarette Smoking, E-cigarette Use, and Dual Use Among Urban and Rural Women During the Peripartum Period, PRAMS 2015-2020.

Evidence has emerged on the health dangers of electronic cigarette (e-cigarette) use among pregnant women and neonates. We examined whether rural residence is a risk factor for smoking and e-cigarette use among women during the peripartum period in the United States. This study was based on pooled cross-sectional 2015-2020 data from the Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System. The outcome was exclusive smoking, exclusive e-cigarette use, and use of both products (ie, dual use) versus use of neither tobacco product by women with live infants aged 2 to 6 months. We examined rural-urban differences in outcome by using univariate and multivariable multinomial logistic regressions with post hoc contrasts and marginal analyses, adjusting for complex survey design and nonresponse. During the peripartum period, 5.0% of women were smoking combustible cigarettes, 5.0% were using e-cigarettes, and 1.9% were using both tobacco products. The crude prevalence of e-cigarette use was 1.1 percentage point higher, and the adjusted prevalence was 0.8 percentage points lower for rural versus urban women (P < .001 for both). Among rural women, 6.7% (95% CI, 6.3%-7.1%) smoked combustible cigarettes exclusively and 2.6% (95% CI, 2.3%-2.8%) used both products, as compared with 4.5% (95% CI, 4.4%-4.8%) and 1.7% (95% CI, 1.6%-1.8%) of urban women, respectively, adjusting for sociodemographic and health-related characteristics. Maternal sociodemographic and health-related characteristics differed by combustible smoking versus e-cigarette use during the peripartum period. The effect of residence on e-cigarette use was significantly confounded by sociodemographic and health-related characteristics, resulting in clinically comparable prevalence of e-cigarette use in rural and urban mothers with live infants aged 2 to 6 months.

A STRUCTURAL EQUATION MODELING WITH WELFARE INDICATORS: EXAMINING THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS, ACCESS TO SERVICES AND MATERIAL DEPRIVATION

This study aims at presenting comprehensive model using welfare indicators such as socioeconomic status, access to services and material deprivation, and examining the relationships between these variables. In the analysis, we use the pooled cross-sectional data set of the Household Budget Survey of the Turkish Statistical Institute (TURKSTAT) covering the period 2015-2019. Since the simultaneous relationship between welfare indicators such as socioeconomic status, material deprivation and access to services is examined using latent variables, Structural Equation Modeling is preferred. The study finds that socioeconomic status, composed of education and income, increases households' access to services and decreases their material deprivation. In addition, as households' access to services increases, their material deprivation decreases. Our study also finds that women's socioeconomic status is lower than men's in Turkiye during the period analysed. Moreover men in households have more limited access to services and face more material deprivation than women. The increase in household size makes access to services more difficult, worsens the socioeconomic situation and increases deprivation. Considering the health status variable, it is concluded that healthy individuals have higher socioeconomic status and suffer from less deprivation.

The causes of income inequality in urban China: A household assets perspective

Despite income inequality in China being a heated topic in scholarship and public discussion, little research has explored the trend in income inequality since the mid-2010s or focused on the implications of household assets on income inequality. Using pooled cross-sectional data from the Chinese General Social Survey, we estimate income inequality at the household level from 2012 to 2021 and further examine the effects of two types of household assets (housing assets (HA) and financial assets (FA)) on income inequality in urban China, as well as the moderating effects of socioeconomic status (SES) and regional marketization. The results indicate that national income inequality was sustained at a high level between 2012 and 2021, while income inequality in urban households was higher than that in rural households. Both HA and FA were positively related to income inequality, and the latter assets had a stronger effect on income inequality. The association between the two types of household assets and income inequality strengthened along with an increase in family SES and regional marketization levels. The study highlights that FA, relative to HA, are a more important contributor to income inequality among urban households, thus extending the literature on inequality and social stratification in contemporary China by revealing the causes underlying rising income inequality from the household assets perspective.

Impact of social determinants of health and individual characteristics on substance use disorder treatment utilization among emerging adults aged 18-25

Background Emerging adulthood (typically ages 18–25) is a developmental period associated with increased likelihood of developing substance use disorders (SUDs) resulting in life-altering negative consequences. While SUD treatment can be effective and diminish substance-related consequences, very few emerging adults with SUDs actually receive treatment and research is needed to identify potential determinants of receiving care. We examined associations between individual factors and social determinants of health (SDOH) with SUD treatment service utilization to inform treatment engagement strategies for emerging adults. Methods Using pooled cross-sectional data from the 2015–2019 years of the National Survey on Drug Use and Health, we evaluated past-year treatment utilization among emerging adults (i.e. respondents aged 18–25 years-old) with a past-year SUD (N = 12,594). Logistic regression analyses evaluated sex, race, education level, lifetime arrest history and age of alcohol initiation in addition to mental illness, employment, food stamp utilization, poverty status, and frequency of housing relocation. Results Past-year mental illness, Non-Hispanic White identity, not having a college degree, lifetime arrest history, part-time employment or unemployment, and relocating for housing more than 2 times in the past year were significantly associated with greater likelihood of treatment utilization in adjusted analyses. Conclusions Findings from this nationally representative survey of emerging adults highlight the possible contribution of some SDOH associated with social disadvantage and/or criminal justice involvement on SUD treatment utilization. These results may guide providers in tailoring service delivery mode, community organizations to target populations, and implementation strategies that are effective in reducing SUD treatment service utilization inequity.

Effects of Practice Ownership and Integration of Health Services on Adherence to Diabetes Guidelines.

There has been a trend toward hospital systems and insurers acquiring privately owned physician practices and subsequently converting them into vertically integrated practices. The purpose of this study is to observe whether this change in ownership of a medical practice influences adherence to clinical guidelines for the management of type 1 and type 2 diabetes. This is an observational study using pooled cross-sectional data (2014-2016 and 2018-2019) from the National Ambulatory Medical Care Survey, a nationally representative probability sample of US office-based physician visits. A total of 7499 chronic routine follow ups and preventative care visits to non-integrated (solo and group physician practices) and integrated practices were analyzed to see whether guideline concordant care was provided. Measures included 7 services that are recommended annually for individuals with type 1 and type 2 diabetes (HbA1c, lipid panel, serum creatinine, depression screening, influenza immunization, foot examination, and BMI). Compared to non-integrated physician practices, vertically integrated practices had higher rates of hemoglobin A1C testing (odds ratio 1.58 [95% CI 1.07-2.33], P < .05), serum creatine testing (odds ratio 1.53 [95% CI 1.02-2.29], P < .05), foot examinations (odds ratio 2.03 [95% CI 0.98-4.22], P = .058), and BMI measuring (odds ratio 1.54 [95% CI 0.99-2.39], P = .054). There was no significant difference in lipid panel testing, depression screenings, or influenza immunizations. Our results show that integrated medical practices have a higher adherence to diabetes practice guidelines than non-integrated practices. However, rates of services provided regardless of ownership were low.

The Effects of Working Capital Management on Firms’ Efficiency: Case of Turkish and Zimbabwean Commercial Banks.

This research studies management of working capital and its impact on commercial bank efficiency in Zimbabwe and Turkey. The study examined the financial statements of 10 banks from each country between 2009 and 2022. The research evaluated performance of banks using return on asset (ROA) as well as return on equity (ROE) as efficiency indicators. Working capital was assessed through the current ratio, current ratio, and total cash ratio, while bank size and leverage were considered as control variables. Correlation analysis, estimation equations, and regression models were used to examine the data, which included pooled cross-sectional and time series data, using SPSS (version 20.0). The data demonstrated a favourable and substantial association between ROE and the current ratio, demonstrating that adequate management of working capital has a beneficial impact on the banks’ profitability. A negative correlation, in contrast, between current ratio and ROE was noted, implying a balance of profitability and liquidity. Furthermore, no statistically significant association was seen between cash payment ability, total cash ratio, and ROA. However, a significant negative correlation was identified between the current ratio and ROA. Comparing the two countries, Turkish banks demonstrate superior liquidity management, potentially attributed to their adherence to the Basel III reform guidelines. The study recommends that Zimbabwean banks adopt similar measures to enhance their competitiveness in the international banking sector. In conclusion, the research emphasises the significance of good management of working capital in maximising bank efficiency. The findings provide valuable insights for policymakers and practitioners in the banking industry, urging them to implement liquidity management strategies for sustained success.

Polarisation of Climate and Environmental Attitudes in the United States, 1973-2022

Since the early 1990s, increasing political polarisation is among the greatest determinants of individual-level environmental and climate change attitudes in the United States. But several patterns remain unclear: are historical patterns of polarisation largely symmetrical (equal) or is rather asymmetrical (where one set of partisans shifts more than others)? How have polarisation patterns have changed over time? How generalizable are polarization patterns across different environmental and climate change attitudes? We harmonised four unique sets of historical, pooled cross-sectional survey data from the past 50 years to investigate shifts across seven distinct measures of citizen environmental and climate change attitudes. We find that contemporary attitudes are polarised symmetrically, with Democrats (higher) and Republicans (lower) attitudes are equidistant from the median. But the historical trends in polarisation differ by attitudes and beliefs. In particular, we find evidence of two distinct historical patterns of asymmetric polarisation within environmental and climate change attitudes: first, with Republicans becoming less pro-environmental, beginning in the early 1990s, and second, a more recent greening of Democratic environmental attitudes since the mid-2010s. Notably, recent increases in pro-environmental attitudes within Democrats is a potentially optimistic finding, providing opportunities towards overcoming decades-long inertia in climate action. These findings provide a foundation for further research avenues into the factors shaping increased pro-environmental attitudes within Democrats.

Underinsurance Among Children With Special Health Care Needs in the United States

A rise in pediatric underinsurance during the last decade among households with children with special health care needs (CSHCN) requires a better understanding of which households, by health care burden or income level, have been most impacted. To examine the prevalence of underinsurance across categories of child medical complexity and the variation in underinsurance within these categories across different levels of household income. This cross-sectional study used data from the National Survey of Children's Health and included 218 621 US children from 2016 to 2021. All children included did not reside in any type of institution (eg, correctional institutions, juvenile facilities, orphanages, long-term care facilities). Data were analyzed from January 2016 to December 2021. The primary exposure is a categorization of child health care needs constructed using parent-reported child physical and behavioral health conditions, as well as the presence of functional limitations. The primary outcome variable is underinsurance, defined as absence of consistent or adequate health insurance. Models were adjusted for demographic and socioeconomic characteristics and stratified by household income. Multivariate logistic regression analysis of pooled cross-sectional survey data across multiple years (2016 to 2021) adjusted for complex survey design (weights). In a total sample of 218 621 children who were not in institutions and were aged 0 to 17 years from 2016 to 2021 (105 478 [48.9%] female; 113 143 [51.1%] male; 13 571 [13.0%] non-Hispanic Black children; 149 706 [51.2%] non-Hispanic White children), underinsurance prevalence was higher among the children who had complex physical conditions (3316 [37.0%]), mental or behavioral conditions (5432 [38.1%]), or complex physical conditions and functional limitations (1407 [40.7%]) or mental or behavioral conditions with limitations (3442 [41.1%]), compared with healthy children (ie, children without special health care needs or limitations) (52 429 [31.2%]). The association between underinsurance and complexity of child health care needs varied by household income. In households earning 200% to 399% federal poverty level (FPL), underinsurance was associated with children having complex physical conditions and limitations (OR, 2.74; 95% CI, 2.13-3.51) and mental or behavioral conditions and limitations (OR, 2.21; 95% CI, 1.87-2.62), compared with healthy children. In households earning 400% or more above FPL, children's mental or behavioral conditions and limitations were associated with underinsurance (OR, 3.31; 95% CI, 2.82-3.88) compared with healthy children. In this cross-sectional study, the odds of being underinsured were not uniform among CSHCN. Both medical complexity and daily functional limitations led to increased odds of being underinsured. The concentration of underinsurance among middle-income households underpinned the challenge of health care financing for families of CSHCN whose incomes surpassed eligibility thresholds for dependent Medicaid insurance.

Use of subsidized insurance policy in climate adaptation strategies: the case of pastoral regions in China

ABSTRACT Insurance plays an important role in building rural livelihood resilience, in the context of climate change. Existing research examines the factors influencing insurance uptake and the effects of insurance adoption on informal risk-sharing strategies. This study, however, argues that insurance is an external policy intervention being introduced into a diversity of rural community adaptation strategies that are crucial components of resilient livelihood development. In this context, this study focuses on the case of subsidized livestock insurance in Tibetan pastoral regions with pooled cross-sectional data spanning three distinct time periods to explore how formal subsidized livestock insurance interacts with the diversity of adaptation strategies. Our findings first revealed a rising trend in subsidized livestock insurance adoption, accompanied by increased utilization of various on-pastoralism strategies, including custom-based and market-based approaches, and off-pastoralism strategies, such as increasing income sources. Second, our studies found a significant positive correlation between livestock insurance and the diversity index of market-based and off-pastoralism adaptation strategies, indicating a more complementary relationship. In addition, our studies discovered that the introduction of livestock insurance does not have an obvious correlation with custom-based strategies, dismissing the concerns of the potential displacement of informal custom-based adaptation strategies by subsidized livestock insurance. These results highlight that the subsidized livestock insurance policy is among many other adaptation strategies that rural communities have applied to respond to climate changes and build resilient livelihoods.

Time-Trends in Food Insecurity Among US-Born and Foreign-Born Hispanic Adults by Language Use: An Analysis of National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey Data, 1999-2018

BackgroundHistorically, food insecurity prevalence has been higher in Hispanic households than in non-Hispanic White households. Food insecurity prevalence among Hispanic adults, US-born and foreign-born, may vary by language use. ObjectiveTo explore whether or not the relationship between language use and food insecurity varied over time (1999-2018) among US-born and foreign-born Hispanic adults. DesignTrends analysis and multivariable logistic regression modeling using pooled cross-sectional data. Participants and settingFifteen thousand sixty-two Hispanic adults participating in the United States National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (1999-2018). Main outcome measuresFood insecurity prevalence, assessed with the US Household Food Security Survey Module. Statistical analysisUnadjusted food insecurity trends from 1999 to 2018 by language use (mostly English, both languages equally, or mostly Spanish) among US-born and foreign-born Hispanic adults were analyzed using piecewise-linear regression of log prevalence rates. Multivariable logistic regression models adjusted for sociodemographic characteristics and with an interaction term between language use and time were used to determine if odds of food insecurity among US-born and foreign-born Hispanic adults varied by language use between 1999 and 2018. ResultsHispanic adults’ food insecurity prevalence followed an upward linear trend from 1999 to 2018; this was significant for US-born mostly English-speakers (P < 0.001), US-born mostly Spanish-speakers (P = 0.013), and foreign-born mostly Spanish-speakers (P < 0.001). In fully adjusted logistic regression models, foreign-born Hispanic adults who spoke both languages equally (odds ratio 1.8, 95% CI 1.2 to 2.6) and those who spoke mostly Spanish (odds ratio 1.9, 95% CI 1.4 to 2.8) had significantly higher food insecurity odds, compared with mostly English-speakers. No variations in associations across time were observed between language use and food insecurity (interaction P value > 0.1). ConclusionsHispanic adults’ unadjusted food insecurity trends from 1999 to 2018 varied by language use. When adjusted for sociodemographic characteristics and compared with mostly English-speakers, food insecurity odds were significantly higher only among foreign-born Hispanic adults who spoke either both languages equally or mostly Spanish. Food assistance programs should linguistically adapt their services for Hispanic adults.

Student loan debt in retirement: identifying the correlates and implications for policy, practice and research

PurposeResearch shows that having student loan debt in retirement is associated negatively with life satisfaction, suggesting that student debt is a bane of retiree well-being. The rationale for this study is to determine the factors related to owing student debt in retirement, given the adverse effects on the well-being of retired households.Design/methodology/approachThe study utilizes pooled cross-sectional data from the 2015 and 2018 U.S. National Financial Capability Study. The empirical analysis uses a sample of retired Americans aged 65 years and older (N = approximately 8,000) and estimates two-block logistic regression models to examine the effects of demographic, socioeconomic and behavioral factors on student loan indebtedness in retirement. A sensitivity analysis is performed for the subsample of retirees holding student debt for their children's education. Statistical interpretations use odds ratios.FindingsThe findings indicate that financial literacy, age, homeownership and high subjective financial knowledge are associated with a low likelihood of holding student loan debt in retirement. However, being Black, having postsecondary education, having difficulty covering expenses, having financially dependent children, having high-risk preferences and spending more than income increase the likelihood of holding student debt in retirement. The ensuing discussion will assist financial planners and educators identify practical ways to shape decisions regarding student loan debt in retirement.Research limitations/implicationsThe amount of student loan debt is unavailable in the dataset for analysis. One cannot infer causal relations from the study. The factors examined do not reflect the time the student loan was obtained.Originality/valueThe study focuses on the determinants of student loan indebtedness among retired Americans rather than young adults or older adults on the verge of retirement. The paper enhances the understanding of student loan holdings in the decumulation phase of the life cycle. Many US individuals have low retirement savings from which they draw a retirement income. The more the student debt burdens on retired Americans, the greater the likelihood of outliving their resources and experiencing poverty.

Research on the Determinants of Poverty in Different Countries

This study investigates the factors contributing to variations in poverty levels among different countries. The data in this research is sourced from the World Bank, employing pooled cross-sectional data over time for each variable. A comprehensive set of diagnostic tests is applied to examine the research hypotheses. Contrary to the initial assumption that foreign direct investment and the proportion of the female labour force could alleviate poverty, the findings demonstrate that poverty is primarily influenced by factors such as agriculture, grants, and advancements in science. As a result, it is recommended that organizations and advanced nations adopt distinct approaches when dealing with impoverished countries. Different policies should be implemented to enhance efficiency and capacity in poverty reduction efforts.

Precarious housing and health inequalities in Spain since the crisis

Abstract Background Housing is considered crucial to human existence and has been recognized as a key social determinant of health. However, the “housing question” has become a major issue in high-income countries. In this context, the concept of precarious housing has emerged to describe the increasing prevalence of insecure and unstable housing conditions. However, its research has been limited to very specific national and temporal contexts. To address this gap, the present paper aims to study the predictors of precarious housing and its impact on health inequalities in the Spanish context since the GFC. Methods The methodology will consist of a multilevel analysis of pooled cross-sectional data from the Spanish Survey of Living Conditions (ECV) 2007-2020 (N = 51882) to identify the predictors of housing precariousness. Then, we are going to examine the associations between precarious housing and health outcomes and inequalities through multivariate logistic regressions. Results Our descriptive results show that precarious housing has become a persistent problem in the Spanish context. Furthermore, we found that precarious housing levels are unevenly distributed across the population along axes of inequality. In this respect, tenure status emerges as a critical predictor. Compared to outright homeowners, mortgage homeowners, market rental tenants, social rental tenants, and free cession dwellers experience significantly higher levels of housing precariousness (RR: 6.53, CI: 5.97 - 7.15; RR:8.10, CI:7.37-8.91; RR:5.72, CI:5.06-6.48; and RR:1.41, CI:1.21-1.65 respectively). Finally, we show that precarious housing conditions are significant predictors of health outcomes and inequalities. The odds ratio (OR) of reporting lower self-reported health increases with the number of precarious housing levels: 1.68 (CI: 1.52-1.85) for one level, 2.43 (CI: 1.94-3.03) for two levels, and 3.55 (CI: 2.23-5.67) for three levels. Key messages • Precarious housing is influenced by axes of inequality such as age, gender or nationality. • Health inequalities are strongly associated with precarious housing conditions.

The Rising Use of LSD among Business Managers

Background Although studies have demonstrated that the use of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) is on the rise in the United States, it remains unclear how this trend looks across the hierarchical ladder of the American workforce. This is relevant given that LSD is increasingly being touted as a means of boosting creativity and performance, with mounting anecdotal evidence that business managers in particular are turning to it for inspiration and insight. Methods Using pooled cross-sectional data from the National Survey on Drug Use and Health (2006–2014) on 168,920 adults in the United States employed full-time (weighted = 117,270,940), this study investigates how temporal trends in past year LSD use differ among business managers and non-managers. Results The results suggest that the prevalence of past year LSD use increased over time at a greater rate among business managers than non-managers and that this difference cannot be accounted for by changes in business managers’ perceived risk of LSD use or general substance use relative to non-managers. Conclusions The study’s findings indicate that temporal trends in past year LSD use depend on employees’ hierarchical rank in their organization and suggest that business managers, regardless of gender, are becomingly increasingly interested in the potential competitive advantages that LSD may offer.

Gender Preferences for Children and Gender Relations in Contemporary China

This study aims to investigate and compare the determinants of gender preference for children in rural and urban China under the values of children to parents (VOC) approach by focusing on the effects of attitudes to elder care and gender roles, and the attainment of insurance programs. Using pooled cross-sectional data from 2013 and 2015 of the Chinese General Social Surveys, we found that rural individuals expecting children responsible for old-age support exhibit daughter preference, followed by balance preference, whereas their urban counterparts show similar son preference and daughter preference. In addition, balance preference is associated with traditional gender role attitudes among rural individuals but correlated with more equal gender attitudes among urbanites. Furthermore, having more economic security decreases rural individuals’ preferences for having more daughters. The findings suggest that the prevalent balance preference and the rising preference for daughters have quite different implications on the gender relationship between rural and urban China, and traditionalism still drives gender preference in rural China. Policy implications are also discussed.

Earnings management, capital management, signalling and the Covid-19 pandemic: the case of listed banks in the United States

Purpose- This paper investigates earnings management, capital management, the impact of the Covid-19 pandemic and signalling by United States listed banks of loan loss provisions. This study is particularly important because there is a relative dearth of research in banking on these topics and thus remain considerably under researched. Methodology- The dataset comprises a pooled cross-sectional and time series data for a sample of 249 U.S. listed banks for the period 2015 to 2020 consisting of 1,494 observations. A panel data analysis is conducted. Findings- Results overall show no evidence of systematic earnings management, capital management or signaling by the banks. Findings reveal the impact of the Covid-19 pandemic is not significant during this period of economic fragility for listed banks. The elasticity of loan loss provisions with regards to the annual growth in gross domestic product is negative and statistically significant overall. This is evidence that U.S. listed banks’ loan loss provisioning exhibits a pro-cyclical nature. Overall, these results provide evidence of the success of restrictions due to tighter bank regulation and supervision that came into effect at the end of 2014. This required U.S. banks to maintain a minimum common equity tier 1 capital ratio of 4 percent, a minimum tier 1 capital ratio of 5.5 percent, a minimum total capital ratio of 8 percent, and a minimum leverage ratio of 4 percent. Conclusion- This study adds to the literature as it provides evidence that restrictions on bank activities in the form of minimum capital and leverage ratios at the end of 2014, restrictions in the use of bank capital, and extension of financial support via government intervention funding during the Covid-19 pandemic crisis period have reduced incentives to smooth earnings in the United States banking system. It therefore represents a tried and tested model that can be adopted by banking systems in other countries. Keywords: Banks, capital management, COVID-19 pandemic, earnings management, loan loss provision, signalling. JEL Codes: M41, G21, C23, G28