Pollinator Attraction Research Articles

Patterns of change in floral color and odor of Lonicera calcarata are in relation to pollinator behavior

AbstractFloral color and odor serve as attractants for pollinators. It remains unclear how changes in these traits in color‐change species interact with pollinators and impact a plant's reproductive success. Lonicera calcarata flowers change from white (Night 1 [N1] and Day 1 [D1]) through yellow (Night 2 [N2]) and orange (Day 2 [D2]) to orange‐red (Night 3 [N3] and Day 3 [D3]). Our research showed that floral characters, stigma activity, nectar production and floral spectral reflectance decreased through the flowering phases. Floral odor mainly comprised fatty acids, aldehydes, monoterpenes and alcohols, especially n‐hexadecanoic acid, hexadecanal and 3‐carene. Floral odor peaked on N1 and N3, largely due to the presence of fatty acids. The emission of n‐hexadecanoic acid was higher on N1 and N3 compared with other phases, while hexadecanal emission remained constant throughout the flowering stages. The emission of 3‐carene was highest on N1. Lonicera calcarata was mainly pollinated by the moth Chorodna strixaria, the butterfly Acosmeryx naga and three bumblebees (Bombus melanurus, B. eximius, B. sonani) and they all preferred to visit white (younger) flowers. Moths had a preference for 3‐carene and no significant preference for n‐hexadecanoic acid and hexadecanal. Seed sets of nocturnal pollination and control treatments were not significantly different. Lonicera calcarata could produce seeds by self‐pollination; cross‐pollination significantly increased the seed set. Floral color guides pollinators to visit younger flowers with more floral rewards and higher stigma activity. Different chemical compounds in floral odor may not only attract pollinators but also avoid herbivore damage.

Current insights into plant volatile organic compound biosynthesis.

Current insights into plant volatile organic compound biosynthesis.

Dark side of anthocyanin pigmentation.

Dark pigmentation can be observed in various parts of the plant, ranging from foliage to petals and berries. Here, we review the available knowledge about dark pigmentation in plants and the potential for biotechnological applications. The molecular basis of black pigmentation appears to vary among species, with anthocyanins playing a significant role, although specific anthocyanin types and their mechanisms differ. These findings suggest that the development of phenotypes is species-specific or varies between larger taxonomic groups; this is further supported by the polyphyletic nature of dark pigmentation. Additionally, several different regulatory mechanisms have been described for the occurrence of dark pigmentation. First, the repression or knockout of the competing flavone biosynthesis has been shown to lead to darker pigmentation while another mechanism is based on the activation and upregulation of the anthocyanin biosynthesis genes in the presence of MYB transcription factors. Potential ecological functions of dark pigmentation were identified as protection of the photosynthesis apparatus, camouflage against herbivores, and the attraction of pollinators. Promising industrial applications include microbial factories for the production of natural food colourants, induction of novel phenotypes for the ornamental plant industry and, lastly, increase of anthocyanins within agriculturally relevant crops. Understanding the genetic basis of dark pigment accumulation would facilitate biotechnological and agricultural applications.

Sensory and Economic Evaluation of Mango cv. Kesar as Affected by Pollinator Attractants and Hormonal Treatments

An experiment entitled “Influence of pollinator attractants, chemicals and growth regulators on organoleptic quality and economic returns of mango (Mangifera indica L.) cv. Kesar” was carried out at Fruit Research Station, Lalbaug, College of Horticulture, Junagadh Agricultural University, Junagadh following under South Saurashtra Agro-climatic Zone during the year 2022-23 to 2023-24. The experiment was laid out in Randomized Block Design consisting of ten treatments which were replicated three times.The treatment involving foliar spray of calcium nitrate @ 0.1% + boric acid @ 0.2% (T10) consistently recorded the highest scores for fruit appearance (8.51, 8.50, and 8.51) and flavour (8.05, 8.20, and 8.12) during both the years as well as in pooled data, respectively. While, the best fruit colour (8.20, 8.33 and 8.54 score) was observed in the foliar spray of calcium nitrate @ 0.1% + boric acid @ 0.2% (T10) during the first year as well as in pooled and potassium citrate @ 2% + putrescine @ 10 ppm (T7) during second year, respectively. Similarly, the maximum score of pleasant test (8.68 and 8.39) was recorded in foliar spray of calcium nitrate @ 0.1% + boric acid @ 0.2% (T10) for first year and in pooled data, whereas for second year, maximum pleasant test (8.50) was recorded in foliar spray of milk @ 5% + jaggery @ 5% (T5). Economically, the highest net realization of ₹3,01,118 and a benefit-cost ratio (BCR) of 1.77 were achieved with the application of NAA 50 ppm + micronutrient mixture Grade-IV @ 1% (T8). The findings highlight the effectiveness of specific foliar treatments in enhancing both the sensory quality and profitability of ‘Kesar’ mango cultivation.

The impacts of colorful oilseed rape on pollinator diversity and its pollination services.

Flower color serves as a key trait for pollinators to locate pollen and nectar, potentially influencing pollinator diversity and pollination effectiveness, which may subsequently increase crop productivity. Based on large-scale cultivation and popularization of colorful flower oilseed rape, we assessed the impact of its flower color variation on pollinator communities and pollination functions. The experiments were conducted with a randomized block design (6 different flower-colored varieties of oilseed rape, each with 5 replications) over 2 consecutive years (2021-2022). Results showed that colorful oilseed rape attracts a diverse array of pollinators and enhances pollination efficiency. Across the 2-year sampling period, we identified insect pollinators from 4 orders, 34 families, and 108 species, with Apis mellifera, Lasioglossum politum, and Delia platura emerging as dominant pollinators. No significant differences in pollinator attraction were observed across different flower colors of oilseed rape. Furthermore, the results revealed that insect pollination significantly enhanced the yield of colorful oilseed rape. However, this effect varied by year. In 2021, the fruit setting rate of the main branch and the fertilization rate of the main and lateral branches in open cages were significantly higher than those in closed cages, which excluded insect-pollinators. However, no significant yield differences were observed between flower colors in response to insect pollination in 2021. In conclusion, colorful oilseed rape can serve as a nectar resource and habitat for pollinators, aiding in the restoration of the diversity and abundance of wild pollinators, improving species turnover, and providing pollination services.

Nectar or perfume as reward? Investigating the pollination and chemical ecology of the bromeliad Cryptanthus bahianus.

Perfume flowers provide chemicals as a resource for specialized pollinators, that is, male euglossine bees. This system has been recorded in at least 15 families of Neotropical Angiosperms, including species of the bromeliad genus Cryptanthus. Here, we investigated the pollination and chemical ecology of Cryptanthus bahianus, a potential perfume flower species with an unknown pollination mechanism, emphasizing the possible role of floral signals in pollinator attraction. In a population of C. bahianus situated in NE Brazil, we described the anthesis, determined the breeding system, measured the volume and concentration of nectar, and characterized the main floral cues, such as morphology, colour, and floral scents. Additionally, we investigated the interactions between flowers and their visitors. C. bahianus is an andromonoecious species with diurnal anthesis, beginning at 05:00 h, when nectar is already available. Its white tubular flowers secrete 9 ± 2.8 μL of nectar, with a mean concentration of 18.7% ± 6.96%. The major compounds in the floral scent were benzyl alcohol, (Z)- and (E)-3-methyl-4-decenoic acid, which together accounted for 95.49% of the total bouquet. Floral visitors included male and female euglossine bees, seeking only nectar. C. bahianus offers nectar and, eventually, pollen as floral rewards, contrary to expectations related to the pattern found in three other species of this genus, which have perfume flowers. Chemical analyses of the floral scent of C. bahianus did not reveal the presence of copalol, a semivolatile diterpene produced by flowers of C. burle-maxii and sought by its male euglossine pollinators. The fact that C. bahianus occupies a basal position in the Cryptanthus phylogeny suggests that nectar is a plesiomorphic trait in the genus and that perfume flowers might have evolved from nectar flowers.

Flower movement induced by weather-dependent tropism satisfies attraction and protection

Flowers have antagonistic demands for reproductive success, that is, pollinator attraction and flower protection. However, how flowers accommodate these antagonistic reproductive demands has not been thoroughly analysed. In this study, we elucidate the mechanisms and adaptive significance of weather-driven flower movement in Arabidopsis halleri. The auxin-based elongation of flower pedicels causes the change in flower orientation. Combinations of the circadian clock and light conditions activate either phototropism of the flower pedicels to make flowers upward-facing in the sun or gravitropism to make flowers downward-facing in the rain. The upward- and downward-facing flowers enhance pollinator attraction in the sun and flower protection in the rain, respectively, and both responses are required to increase reproductive success. The present study demonstrates that the weather-dependent tropism of flower pedicels functions to satisfy antagonistic reproductive demands under changing weather conditions.

A combined transcriptomic and metabolomic analysis reveals the metabolic reprogramming of developing thermogenic tissues in Nelumbo nucifera.

Thermogenic plants exhibit high biosynthetic and energetic demands in their thermogenic organs at specific developmental stages. The receptacle of Nelumbo nucifera undergoes metabolic shifts alongside enhanced energy metabolism. Using infrared thermal imaging, we identified the greatest temperature difference between the receptacle and outer petals at the onset (S1) and peak (S2) thermogenic stages. Transcriptomic analysis revealed that alternative oxidase (AOX) and uncoupling protein (UCP) were highly expressed at both S1 and S2, while the expression level of cytochrome c oxidase (COX) at S2 was even lower than that at the pre-thermogenic stage (S0), indicating a possible respiratory flux shift favoring AOX respiration at S2. Additionally, the upregulation of UCP at the thermogenic stages raises the possibility of UCP-fueled thermogenesis. Metabolomic profiling revealed dynamic changes in both primary and secondary metabolites. At S0, amino acids and nucleotides accumulated significantly, while fatty acyl metabolites were prominently enriched at S2. At S2, volatile organic compounds (VOCs) were upregulated compared with S0, aligning with their potential roles in pollinator attraction, whereas phenolics, flavonoids, and condensed tannins declined compared with S1. The thermogenic decline stage (S3) and post-thermogenic stage (S4) were characterized by the reaccumulation of these non-volatile secondary metabolites, along with increased lignin biosynthesis. This study provides new insights into the metabolic adaptations of N. nucifera in plant-environment interactions and highlights the synergistic interplay between thermogenesis and secondary metabolism in promoting reproductive success.

Size Variation in Flower Petals of Chinese Animal-Pollinated Plants in Response to Climatic and Altitudinal Gradients.

The evolutionary adaptations of plant reproductive structures, including angiosperm petal size, are driven by a combination of natural selection influenced by ecological conditions. While previous studies have emphasized pollinator-driven selection on petal traits, significant gaps remain in understanding how abiotic factors, biotic interactions, and life-history trade-offs jointly shape petal size across broad environmental gradients. This study integrates macrogeographic analyses of 10,228 animal-pollinated angiosperm species across China's diverse climatic regions, combining trait data from national flora databases, species distribution records, and high-resolution climate variables. Using hierarchical regression, variance partitioning, and threshold detection models, we disentangle the effects of altitude, latitude, temperature, and precipitation on absolute petal size and its ratio to plant height (MR), while contrasting woody and herbaceous life histories. Key findings reveal: (1) nonlinear thresholds in environmental drivers, with herbaceous petal size declining sharply above 3200 m altitude and 1100 mm annual precipitation; (2) altitude as the dominant predictor of MR, explaining 30% of variance, particularly in alpine zones where floral conspicuousness increases despite plant dwarfing; (3) divergent strategies between woody and herbaceous species, where woody plants prioritize absolute petal size in warm climates, while herbaceous species amplify MR under high-altitude stress; and (4) climate-geography interactions explaining 62%-71% of trait variation, highlighting context-dependent trade-offs between pollinator attraction and stress tolerance. This work provides a comprehensive framework linking petal size traits to multivariate environmental gradients at continental scales, offering critical insights into plant adaptive strategies under climate change and emphasizing altitude-mediated selection as a key driver of floral diversity.

Enhancing entomophilous pollination for sustainable crop production.

Successful fertilization of insect-pollinated crops hinges on a delicate interplay of olfactory and visual signals of pollinator attraction, the chemical complexity of nectar and pollen rewards, and the physical interaction between insects and flower anatomy for efficient pollen transfer. These traits, which are controlled genetically and exhibit phenotypic variance even within species, present opportunities for breeding technologies to map and select genotypes with floral traits that actively guide pollinator preferences. Recent technological advancements and automation have enabled high-throughput metabolic phenotyping of floral chemical traits of pollinator attraction and rewards. These measurements, when integrated with computed tomography (CT) scans of flower shape analysis and video tracking of pollinator behavior, can guide the selection of genotypes with enhanced insect visitation rates and effective cross-pollination. In this perspective article, we highlight the potential of this strategy for blueberry (Vaccinium corymbosum L.), a crop heavily reliant on bee pollination for fruit production and with flowers that display considerable variance of chemical and morphological traits and pollinator visitation rates. Leveraging blueberry's genetic diversity can address pollination issues exacerbated by global warming and declining health of managed bees, thus contributing to a more sustainable agricultural production.

Within-species floral evolution reveals convergence in adaptive walks during incipient pollinator shift

Understanding how evolution proceeds from molecules to organisms to interactions requires integrative studies spanning biological levels. Linking phenotypes with associated genes and fitness illuminates how adaptive walks move organisms between fitness peaks. Floral evolution can confer rapid reproductive isolation, often converging in association with pollinator guilds. Within the monkeyflowers (Mimulus sect. Erythranthe), yellow flowers within red hummingbird-pollinated species have arisen at least twice, suggesting possible pollinator shifts. We compare two yellow-flowered forms of M. cardinalis and M. verbenaceus to their red counterparts in floral phenotypes, biochemistry, transcriptomic and genomic variation, and pollinator interactions. We find convergence in ongoing adaptive walks of both yellow morphs, with consistent changes in traits of large effect (floral pigments, associated gene expression), resulting in strong preference for yellow flowers by bumblebees. Shifts in scent emission and floral opening size also favor bee adaptation, suggesting smaller-effect steps from hummingbird to bee pollination. By examining intraspecific, incipient pollinator shifts in two related species, we elucidate adaptive walks at early stages, revealing how convergent large effect mutations (floral color) may drive pollinator attraction, followed by smaller effect changes for mechanical fit and reward access. Thus, ongoing adaptive walks may impact reproductive isolation and incipient speciation via convergent evolution.

Integrative omics reveals mechanisms of biosynthesis and regulation of floral scent in Cymbidium tracyanum.

Flower scent is a crucial determiner in pollinator attraction and a significant horticultural trait in ornamental plants. Orchids, which have long been of interest in evolutionary biology and horticulture, exhibit remarkable diversity in floral scent type and intensity. However, the mechanisms underlying floral scent biosynthesis and regulation in orchids remain largely unexplored. In this study, we focus on floral scent in Cymbidium tracyanum, a wild species known for its strong floral fragrance and as a primary breeding parent of commercial Cymbidium hybrids. We present a chromosome-level genome assembly of C. tracyanum, totaling 3.79 Gb in size. Comparative genomic analyses reveal significant expansion of gene families associated with terpenoid biosynthesis and related metabolic pathways in C. tracyanum. Integrative analysis of genomic, volatolomic and transcriptomic data identified terpenoids as the predominant volatile components in the flowers of C. tracyanum. We characterized the spatiotemporal patterns of these volatiles and identified CtTPS genes responsible for volatile terpenoid biosynthesis, validating their catalytic functions in vitro. Dual-luciferase reporter assays, yeast one-hybrid assays and EMSA experiments confirmed that CtTPS2, CtTPS3, and CtTPS8 could be activated by various transcription factors (i.e., CtAP2/ERF1, CtbZIP1, CtMYB2, CtMYB3 and CtAP2/ERF4), thereby regulating the production of corresponding monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes. Our study elucidates the biosynthetic and regulatory mechanisms of floral scent in C. tracyanum, which is of great significance for the breeding of fragrant Cymbidium varieties and understanding the ecological adaptability of orchids. This study also highlights the importance of integrating multi-omics data in deciphering key horticultural traits in orchids.

Complex Floral Scent Profile of Neottia ovata (Orchidaceae): General Attractants and Beyond.

Understanding the complexity of flower scent-a crucial attractant for pollinators and a key factor in ensuring plant reproduction-is an essential ecological task for highly endangered orchids. To address this issue, we studied the flower volatiles profile of Neottia ovata, a nectar-rewarding orchid known for its generalist pollination strategy. We then compared the chemical composition of N. ovata floral scent with scent data of other orchid species to place our findings in the context of general volatile attractants emitted by nectar-rewarding or food-deceptive species. Our results contribute to understanding the complexity of the N. ovata floral scent profile and provide valuable methodological insights. The scented bouquet of N. ovata comprises 100 compounds with a relatively consistent composition across the analyzed samples. It is rich in terpenes, including linalool and trans-/cis-sabinene hydrate, compounds commonly associated with generalized rewarding or food-deceptive pollination systems. Other terpenes identified include α- and β-pinene, limonene, and β-phellandrene, whose presence underscores the generalized nature of the floral scent. Interestingly, in the studied N. ovata populations, the dominance among terpenes is shifting markedly towards γ-terpinene, α-terpinene, and terpinene-4-ol, commonly found in essential oils and the floral scents of some supergeneralist-pollination plants. Aromatic compounds were less represented in the N. ovata scent profile and those of other orchids studied, though benzyl alcohol and benzaldehyde were noticeably more abundant. Aliphatic compounds composed the least prevalent fraction, showing a marked decreasing trend among nectar-rewarding species with generalized or specialized pollination systems. It is worth emphasizing that the applied methodology revealed an extensive group of low-frequency compounds in the N. ovata floral scent. This finding raises new ecological questions about the intraspecific diversity of floral scent profiles and sheds new light on the factors determining effective reproduction in this species of orchid.

Soil and climate contribute to maintenance of a flower color polymorphism.

Floral pigments such as anthocyanins are well known to influence pollinator attraction, yet they also confer tolerance to abiotic stressors such as harsh soils, extreme temperatures, low precipitation, and UV radiation. In such cases, environmental variation in abiotic stressors over space or time could lead to the maintenance of flower color variation within species. Under this scenario, flower color in natural populations should covary with environmental stressors. Using a comparative approach, we tested whether abiotic variables predict flower color in Leptosiphon parviflorus, a species with pink and white flower color morphs. We conducted in-depth field studies to assess morph frequency, soil chemistry, and climate. We then employed community scientist-powered iNaturalist observations to examine patterns across even larger spatial scales. Across 21 field sites, L. parviflorus had a higher frequency of pink morphs in sites with serpentine soil, higher average annual temperatures, and higher average climatic water deficit (a proxy for drought stress). iNaturalist observations supported this finding-the probability of flowers being pink is greater in locations with serpentine-derived soil, especially when the local average UV radiation and climatic water deficit are higher. Spatial variation in abiotic stressors may contribute to the maintenance of flower color variation across the geographic range of L. parviflorus. Future studies will examine mechanisms by which flower color affects stress tolerance and will assess whether fitness trade-offs in contrasting habitats across the range are associated with flower color.

Influence of Pollinator Attractant Crops on Abundance of Honeybees and Yield Parameters of Onion

The experiment was conducted during the rabi season (November, 2021 to May, 2022) at the Sidapur farm, University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad, Karnataka, India to comprehensively study the influence that various pollinator attractant crops can have on both the abundance of honeybees and the yield parameters associated with onion crop. To facilitate this study, two distinct rows of marginal crops composed of coriander, buckwheat, carrot, radish, fennel, and black cumin were intentionally grown all along the borders of the onion crop fields. The results of the study revealed that the highest level of activity among pollinators was observed in the plots of onion that included coriander as the marginal crop, which was closely followed by the onion fields that were bordered with buckwheat. Furthermore, the highest diversity indices for pollinators i.e., Shannon-Wiener and Simpson’s diversity index (H and 1-D, respectively), were prominently recorded in the situation where onions were bordered with coriander. In addition, both the quantitative and the qualitative parameters were noted to be significantly higher in the treatment of onion with coriander as a border crop. It was also observed that the bees, which were attracted towards the flowering border crops, subsequently shifted their focus to the main onion crop, thereby providing essential pollination services right from the very first flower that opened. This phenomenon ultimately contributed to an overall enhancement in both the quantity and quality of seeds produced in the main crop, leading to improved agricultural outcomes.

Myosotis scorpioides L. (Boraginaceae) floral nectary: Micromorphology, fluorescence, and ultrastructure.

Myosotis scorpioides L. (Boraginaceae) floral nectary: Micromorphology, fluorescence, and ultrastructure.

Untargeted flower volatilome profiling highlights differential pollinator attraction strategies in muscadine.

Floral aromas are a mixture of volatile organic compounds, essential attributes associated with the attraction of different pollinators. This investigation is the first in-depth exploration of the volatile profiles of sixteen muscadine grape genotypes, producing female and perfect flowers using the headspace solid-phase microextraction (HS-SPME)-GC-MS-based untargeted volatilomics approach. A total of one hundred fifty volatile metabolites were identified in the muscadine flower genotypes, including the functional groups of hydrocarbons, esters, alcohols, ketones, aldehydes, miscellaneous, and acids. Multivariate statistical analysis for volatile terpenes revealed eleven bio-marker terpene volatiles that primarily distinguish between female and perfect flowers. The β-elemene, β-bisabolene, and α-muurolene were the marker volatiles characterizing perfect flowers; however, α-selinene, (Z,E)-α-farnesene, and (E,E)-geranyl linalool were the typical marker terpene in the female flowers. Perfect flowers exhibited better pollinator attraction capacity associated with a higher number of flowers per inflorescence, enhanced pollinator rewards, and higher numbers and quantities of terpene volatiles than female flowers, resulting in superior pollinator attraction capacity and fruit set efficiency. The pollinator attraction mechanism of female flowers exhibited several morphological and biochemical floral defects, causing random pollinator visits and low fruit set efficiency. The controlled pollination assay could express female flowers' full fruit set capabilities by avoiding casual insect pollination. This comprehensive study suggests that these marker terpenes might contribute to pollinator attraction in muscadine flower genotypes and should be considered an excellent reference for agroecosystem ecologists and entomologists.

Proteome and Metabolome Analyses of Albino Bracts in Davidia involucrata.

Although the mechanisms underlying albino phenotypes have been examined in model plants and major crops, our knowledge of bract albinism is still in its infancy. Davidia involucrata, a relic plant called dove tree, is best known for the intriguing trait with a pair of white bracts covering the capitula. Here, comparative physiological, cytological, proteomic, and metabolomic analyses were performed to dissect the albinism mechanism of D. involucrata bracts. The bracts exhibited low chlorophyll and carotenoid contents, reduced photosynthetic efficiency, and impaired chloroplast structure. The severe deficiency of photosynthetic pigments and the substantial decrease in cuticle thickness made the bracts light-sensitive. In total, 1134 differentially expressed proteins (DEPs) were obtained between bracts and leaves. Pathway enrichment analysis of DEPs revealed that photosynthetic pigment biosynthesis and photosynthesis were suppressed, whereas protein processing in endoplasmic reticulum, flavonoid biosynthesis, and the ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS) were activated in bracts. Strikingly, DEPs implicated in chloroplast development, including PPR and AARS proteins, were mainly down-regulated in bracts. We further investigated albinism-induced metabolic changes and detected 412 differentially abundant metabolites (DAMs). Among them, enhanced flavonoids accumulation can plausibly explain the role of bracts in pollinator attraction. Amino acids and their derivatives in bracts showed remarkably increased abundance, which might be causally linked to enhanced UPS function. Our work could lay foundations for understanding albinism mechanisms and adaptive significance of plant bracts and facilitate future utilization of D. involucrata resources.

Nectar Replenishment Dynamics and its Influence on Pollination by Tetragonula iridipennis (Smith) in Greenhouse-Grown Cucumis sativus L

It is well known that nectar is the primary pollinator attractant, little is known about whether nectar replenishes after being removed. To comprehend how nectar availability affects pollinators behavior and the long-term persistence of floral resources, it is imperative to look into the replenishment process. Our findings highlight the dynamic nature of nectar availability suggest that nectar is not entirely depleted in a single pollinator visit, with measurable amounts remaining or replenished over time, but the amount of nectar varies across time points, according to all four test statistics Pillai's Trace = 0.692, F = 20.769, p < 0.001; Wilks' Lambda = 0.308, F = 20.769, p < 0.001; Hotelling's Trace = 2.245, F = 20.769, p < 0.001; Roy's Largest Root = 2.245, F = 20.769, p < 0.001). This reoccurrence of nectar may be the reason for the increased visits of bees to flower, as increase in the amount of honey in the bee box was observed before and after the experiment. These patterns underscore the adaptive significance of nectar recurrence, supporting sustained pollinator activity and enhancing floral resource utility.

First comprehensive report on the chemical composition of the floral perfume of Notylia (Orchidaceae)

This study presents the first complete analysis of the chemical composition of the flowers of the species N. fragrans and N. microchila. The compounds were extracted via distillation and simultaneous extraction and analysed using gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry. A total of 82 compounds were identified and the results reveal significant differences in the abundance of compounds between the species. While N. fragrans has eugenol as its majority compound, N. microchila exhibits high concentrations of (E)-β-farnesene. In addition, remarkable concentrations of secondary compounds such as methyl-eugenol, β-bisabolene, germacrene D, 1-octadecene, hexadecyl acetate and ipsdienol were observed and are demonstrably related to the processes of attraction of pollinators, such as euglossine bees, by Orchidaceae. The findings of the study offer valuable insights into the ecology and reproductive biology of the species studied, and also present taxonomic potential for the phytochemical data.