BackgroundComplex chromosomal rearrangement (CCR) refers to a structural rearrangement involving at least two chromosomes or a minimum of three breakpoints. CCR may lead to intellectual disability, structural anomalies, infertility, and recurrent miscarriages. Chromosome karyotyping and chromosomal microarray analysis (CMA) are unable to detect complex chromosomal rearrangements. As multiple diagnostic approaches are available in clinical practice for detecting chromosomal structural abnormalities and copy number variations—each with its own advantages and limitations—selecting the appropriate testing method is crucial for effective clinical management. Optical genome mapping (OGM) is an advanced genomic technology that utilizes ultra-long single-molecule analysis to comprehensively detect chromosomal aberrations and structural variants at high resolution.Material and methodsAmniocentesis was performed for a 36-year-old multipara (advanced maternal age), with subsequent comprehensive fetal genetic analysis including chromosome karyotyping, CMA, and OGM. Family members underwent peripheral blood karyotyping and OGM.ResultsThe fetal karyotype derived from amniotic fluid was 46,XN,?ins(18)(q21.2;p11.31p11.2). CMA demonstrated duplications of four segments and a deletion of one segment on chromosome 18. Therefore, OGM was performed on the fetal and family members to further elucidate the chromosomal structure. The fetus has derived CCRs on chromosome 18 of maternal origin. In contrast, both the mother and the second daughter, who carried the identical CCRs, were phenotypically normal.ConclusionOGM is of significant importance in the diagnosis and characterization of CCRs.OGM plays a critical role in diagnosing complex chromosomal rearrangements and has proven to be invaluable in clinical utility.

Extended molecular profiling in mesenchymal tumors: a consensus paper from the Italian Sarcoma Group.

Meiosis in plants: from Understanding to Manipulation

Drug-resistant strains of Leishmania infantum challenge the effectiveness of treatments for clinical leishmaniosis and may lead to more frequent relapses. Copy number variation (CNV) at specific genetic loci is associated with drug resistance and virulence, but information about its prevalence in endemic regions is limited. This study examines the drug resistance and virulence status of Leishmania strains in human and canine isolates from the Mediterranean region. Forty-eight Leishmania infantum isolates were whole-genome sequenced with nanopore long reads, followed by de novo assembly. We analyzed chromosomal aneuploidies and gene copy number variation in loci linked to drug resistance and virulence in Leishmania, alongside the genomic structure and rearrangements responsible for these variations. Complete genomes were de novo assembled for 35 L. infantum isolates (22 from dogs and 13 from humans), revealing significant chromosomal variability. We assessed copy number variation for 22 potential biomarkers: 15 genes related to drug resistance to first-line drugs (METK for allopurinol; LdSMT for amphotericin B; AQP1 and H-locus for antimonials; LdMT, LdRos3, and MSL for miltefosine; and PPM for paramomycin) and 7 genes related to virulence (lipophosphoglycan and proteophosphoglycan biosynthesis, and the Lack protein). Drug-resistance biomarkers were identified in 80% of the isolates. Canine strains primarily showed resistance to allopurinol and antimonials, while human isolates exhibited a broader resistance spectrum, especially to antimonials and paromomycin. The co-occurrence of resistance biomarkers was common, especially for allopurinol and antimonial resistance. Distinct mechanisms underlie the observed copy number variations. Virulence-associated genes were less variable among isolates. The prevalence of drug-resistance biomarkers in Leishmania infantum strains from the Mediterranean region, as revealed by this study, underscores the critical need for routine resistance surveillance in managing clinical leishmaniosis. These findings not only inform current clinical practice but also pave the way for more effective management strategies in the future.

Shifts in lineage diversification rates, shaped by speciation and extinction, are influenced by morphological, ecological, and genetic changes. In this study, we investigate the drivers of diversification in Carex, considering chromosome number evolution, bioclimatic variables (temperature and precipitation), and morphological traits (culm and lateral spike unit lengths), along with their evolutionary rates. First, we used Bayesian Analysis of Macroevolutionary Mixtures (BAMM) to estimate diversification and trait evolution rates and probabilistic models for chromosome evolution. Phylogenetic path analyses (PPA) were then used to assess the relative contribution of the predictors to diversification. We tested three different model sets: (i) a set where diversification is predicted by chromosome number, climate, and morphology means for each species; (ii) a set where diversification is predicted by the evolutionary rates of these three predictors; and (iii) a set combining both means values and evolutionary rates to predict lineage diversification. Additionally, we used the Quantitative State Speciation and Extinction (QuaSSE) model to test the effects of chromosome evolution rates on speciation and extinction. Chromosome number and the rate of chromosome evolution have a weak but significant influence on Carex diversification, though it varies across models and clades. Bioclimatic variables and their evolutionary rates also affect diversification, but only indirectly, through their influence on morphology and chromosome evolution. The subtle but significant influence of chromosome number and its rate of evolution on Carex diversification suggests that the genus's remarkable diversity cannot be explained by a single driver. Instead, it likely results from a complex interplay among bioclimatic, genomic, and morphological traits. Notably, the influence of chromosome number is not consistent across all models and clades, highlighting the context-dependent nature of these relationships. Thus, the associations between traits and lineage diversification resist simple linear explanations and may vary across Carex lineages.

Data on chromosomal polymorphism in two natural populations from the Inya River in Western Siberia (Novosibirsk province) of Chironomus sp. J (Kiknadze, 1991) —one of the sibling species from the Chironomusplumosus group — are presented for the first time. The species belongs to the “thummi” cytocomplex with 2n = 8 and the arm’s combination AB CD EF G and is closely related to Ch.nudiventris Ryser, Scholl et Wülker, 1983, which has 2n = 6 with the arm’s combination AB CD GEF (a modified “thummi” cytocomplex). The main difference between these two species is the number of chromosomes, apart from that they only differ by the frequencies of banding sequences in arm A, and the presence or absence of some polymorphic inversions. The banding sequence pool of Chironomus sp. J consists of 15 banding sequences. Inversions were found in five chromosomal arms – A, B, D, E, F. The most polymorphic arms were B and D. Two studied populations differed by the level of chromosomal polymorphism with one population being completely monomorphic and the other showing high level of polymorphism with 62–65% of heterozygotes and 0.83–0.88 heterozygotic inversion per larva (depending on the year of collection). Comparison of banding sequences to other species from the group showed that Chironomus sp. J is indeed closest to Ch.nudiventris, with the cytogenetic distance of 0.058 or 0.471 depending on the method of calculation, which indicates that these two species are very closely related. The relationship between Chironomus sp. J and other species from the Ch.plumosus group was discussed.

Ribosomal DNA (rDNA) occurs as tandem arrays of a repeat unit containing the genes encoding 18S, 5.8S and 28S rRNA separated by spacers. These rRNAs form the catalytic core of ribosomes and thus play a crucial role in protein synthesis. Due to its repetitive nature, rDNA copy number varies within and between eukaryotic species through recombination, which also results in homogenization of repeat sequences within species (concerted evolution). However, the recombination rate within rDNA has not been extensively estimated. Despite concerted evolution and strong selection to maintain the sequence of rRNA genes, some transposons insert into specific sequences in the 28S gene. We used short-read whole genome sequences to examine the dynamics of change in rDNA copy number and sequence variation in 90 samples from clonally propagated Daphnia obtusa mutation accumulation (MA) lines over ∼95 generations. We also tracked the number of Pokey elements, a DNA transposon that inserts into the 28S gene of species in the subgenus Daphnia. We observed an overall decline in rDNA copy number across MA lines between generations 5 and ∼87, although both increases and decreases were observed over short intervals. The diploid 28S copy number ranged from 144 to 1,274, with a mean of 425.2. Diploid Pokey number varied from 65 to 537 and was significantly positively correlated with 28S copy number. Moreover, the element persisted in all lines even after large reductions in 28S copy number. We found that estimating rates of rDNA copy number change over long intervals resulted in substantial underestimates, as shorter intervals revealed that large copy number changes could occur in as few as five generations. We identified five rDNA haplotypes based on 58 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) that were distributed across the 18S and 28S genes, and the three non-repetitive intergenic spacer regions. We also identified six Pokey haplotypes based on 113 SNPs. The number of these haplotypes was strongly correlated with the number of the three most common rDNA haplotypes. By tracking changes in haplotype frequency and copy number within four MA lines over short time intervals, we estimated the mean rDNA recombination rate to be 0.094 events/generation. These results reveal that rapid changes can occur in rDNA over short timescales and show that Pokey transposon dynamics are tightly linked to rDNA structure.

The fungal genus Cryptococcus includes several life-threatening human pathogens as well as diverse saprobic species whose genome architecture, ecology, and evolutionary history remain less well characterized. Understanding how some lineages evolved into major pathogens remains a central challenge and may be advanced by comparisons with their nonpathogenic counterparts. Integrative approaches have become essential for delimiting species and reconstructing evolutionary relationships, particularly in lineages with cryptic diversity or extensive chromosomal rearrangements. Here, we formally characterize six Cryptococcus species representing distinct evolutionary lineages, comprising both newly discovered and previously recognized but unnamed taxa, through a combination of phylogenomic analyses, divergence metrics, chromosomal comparisons, mating assays, and phenotypic profiling. Among pathogenic taxa, we formally name Cryptococcus hyracis sp. nov., corresponding to the previously characterized VGV lineage within the C. gattii complex. In parallel, we describe five saprobic, nonpathogenic species isolated from fruit, soil, and bark beetle galleries, spanning four phylogenetic clades. We identify a strong ecological association with bark beetles for Cryptococcus porticicola sp. nov., the only newly described nonpathogenic species with multiple sequenced strains from diverse sites. In this species, we detect strain-level chromosomal variation and evidence of sexual reproduction, along with population-level signatures of recombination. Across the genus, chromosome-level comparisons reveal extensive structural variation, including species- and strain-specific rearrangements that may restrict gene flow. We also identify multiple instances of chromosome number reduction, often accompanied by genomic signatures consistent with centromere inactivation or loss of centromeric identity. Comparative metabolic profiling with Biolog phenotype microarrays reveals clade-level differentiation and distinct substrate preferences, which may reflect metabolic divergence and habitat-specific diversification. Notably, we confirm that thermotolerance is restricted to clinically relevant taxa. These findings refine the species-level taxonomy of Cryptococcus, broaden its known genomic and ecological diversity, and strengthen the framework for investigating speciation, adaptation, and the emergence of pathogenicity within the genus.

Adolescent and young adult (AYA) patients remain underrepresented in neuro-oncology research. Despite being the second most common primary brain tumor in this population, meningiomas have not been studied using age-specific molecular analyses. DNA methylation-based classification and prognostic tools have transformed meningioma care. This study aimed to evaluate the performance of these tools across age groups. We analyzed 1,568 meningiomas with DNA methylation and clinical data, including 18 pediatric patients (<15 years), 195 AYA patients (15-39 years), and 1,355 adult patients (>39 years). Pediatric and AYA (P/AYA) tumors were combined and compared with adult tumors. The performance of established molecular classifiers and recurrence predictors, as well as differences in chromosomal copy number alterations were compared across age groups. While histologic grading was comparable between cohorts, P/AYA tumors displayed significantly fewer aggressive molecular groups and lower frequencies of chromosomal arm losses, including 1p, 6q, and 14q. The adult-trained recurrence predictor failed in the P/AYA population (AUC 0.57), despite similar score distributions. Retraining the model on an age-specific cohort using an identical analytic framework improved performance (AUC 0.79) and enabled effective stratification of progression-free survival (p = 0.00054). Importantly, 1p loss retained prognostic significance within the P/AYA group, supporting its clinical utility. Molecular tools developed in adult-dominant cohorts do not generalize to younger patients due to both biological divergence and exclusion from model development. These findings underscore the need for age-specific molecular frameworks and highlight the imperative of including P/AYA populations in precision neuro-oncology research to ensure lifespan-equitable care.

ABSTRACTStructural variation is increasingly recognised as a pivotal contributor to genomic diversity in marine invertebrates, yet its extent and evolutionary significance remain poorly characterised in many species. Haplotype‐phased genome assembly is an excellent resource for studying such variations by comparing homologous chromosomes. Here, we focus on abalones (genus Haliotis) that are iconic marine invertebrates originated in the Cretaceous period. They have long drawn attention for their ecological roles, distinctive morphology and cultural and economic value. In this study, we constructed a haplotype‐phased genome assembly for the western Pacific abalone, Haliotis gigantea, using high‐fidelity (HiFi) long‐read sequencing and high‐resolution chromosome conformation capture (Hi‐C) data. The primary and alternative assemblies each comprised 18 long scaffolds (> 50 Mb), consistent with the species' diploid chromosome number (2n = 36), and contained 96.5% and 96.2% complete single‐copy Metazoa Benchmarking Universal Single‐Copy Orthologs genes, respectively, indicating high assembly quality. Comparative analysis of the two haplotypes revealed three homologous chromosomes with large‐scale non‐syntenic regions caused by extensive segmental duplications, with each enriched in distinct gene domains that may be related to adaptive evolution. These non‐syntenic chromosomes likely originated in abalone evolution, as they were conserved across both closely and distantly related species, and led to the accumulation of duplicated genes in abalones. Our genome assembly highlights the evolutionary importance of non‐syntenic structural variation in shaping genome architecture and suggests that such variation may play a broader role in functional diversification, adaptation and consequent prosperity across abalones.

Within the Passiflora L. (Passifloraceae) genus, subgenus Passiflora L. is the most economically important. It is reported to have a basic chromosome number of x = 9, with the exception of P. foetida L., which has n = 10. Passiflora foetida, however, exhibits substantial morphological variation, and recently, P. foetida var. versicaria was re-established at the species level, along with related varieties such as P. versicaria var. galapagensis. This study aimed to cytogenetically characterise two P. foetida accessions and two P. vesicaria varieties by estimating genome sizes using flow cytometry, mapping heterochromatic regions by CMA/DAPI staining, and identifying 5S and 35S ribosomal DNA sites using fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH). The genome sizes were similar across the analysed species, varying from 2C = 1.00 ± 0.03 pg for P. vesicaria var. galapagensis to 2C = 1.16 ± 0.01 pg for P. vesicaria var. vesicaria, indicating small genomes. All P. foetida accessions and P. vesicaria varieties showed 2n = 20, confirming previous counts for P. foetida and revealing the chromosome numbers of the two P. vesicaria taxa for the first time. Six CMA+ bands were observed in P. foetida, compared to four in P. vesicaria var. galapagensis, and two in P. vesicaria var. vesicaria, all co-localised with the 35S rDNA sites. A second, weaker pair of 35S rDNA sites was observed in P. vesicaria var. vesicaria but these did not correspond to CMA+ bands. Passiflora foetida showed four interstitial 5S rDNA sites, but one accession exhibited only two interstitial 5S sites, indicating an intra-specific polymorphism not previously documented for either the genus or the species. Both P. vesicaria varieties exhibited two 5S sites. Thus, although the taxa share the same chromosome number (n = 10) and have comparable genome sizes, they exhibit karyotypic variation in the number of CMA bands and rDNA sites, enabling their cytogenetic differentiation.

Aneuploidy, an abnormal number of chromosomes, is a hallmark of cancer and has been proposed as an initiating event in tumorigenesis. In glioblastoma (GBM), a highly aggressive brain tumor, cells almost universally display gain of chromosome 7 and loss of chromosome 10. However, it remains unclear whether these alterations arisede novoduring malignant transformation or reflect pre-existing chromosomal instability in normal brain tissue. Here, we used single-nucleus whole-genome sequencing (snWGS) on 225 NeuN-negative (non-neuronal) cortical nuclei from 12 healthy individuals and 6 GBM patients, including matched tumor cores and non-tumor brain regions. In healthy brains, approximately 15% of glial nuclei harbored somatic aneuploidies, most often involving chromosome arms, with recurrent 16p alterations detected in up to 3% of nuclei from both healthy controls and GBM non-tumor tissue. These findings establish 16p is a hotspot of structural variation in adult glia. Non-tumor regions in GBM patients closely resembled healthy controls in aneuploidy burden and chromosomal instability metrics and lacked hallmark tumor alterations. In contrast, GBM tumors exhibited significantly elevated aneuploidy (~50%), enrichment for canonical chromosomal instability-driven events, and sex-specific karyotype patterns, consistent with transformation-associated chromosomal instability. Thus, aneuploidy is a recurrent but constrained feature of normal adult glia, whereas chromosome instability and GBM-defining aneuploidies emerge only during malignant transformation.

Interrogation of a large clinical data cohort derived from a comprehensive panheme NGS-based assay for elucidation into MDS risk stratification, impact of chip on disease, biopsy sensitivity, and MRD evaluation

Genetic Analysis of Early Neoplasia in the Breast: Next-Generation Sequencing of Flat Epithelial Atypia and Associated Ductal and Lobular Lesions.

In Lolium perenne, a novel growth habit mutant, named VIROIZ, was recovered following colchicine treatment, and it was confirmed to maintain the diploid chromosome number (2n = 2x = 14). The mutation affected the stem morphology by inducing prolific axillary shoot formation at nodal zones, resulting in a spreading growth habit that can extend to ~70 cm in width. Inheritance analysis based on single-plant evaluations in crosses with wild-type plants (F1, n = 285; F2, n = 380) and in selfed progeny (S1, n = 255) consistently showed ~40% expression of the spreading phenotype, deviating from classical Mendelian ratios and indicating complex genetic control. Phenotypic selection further distinguished divergent classes: positively selected lines (C1+) averaged 3.90 axillary tillers per stem, whereas negatively selected lines (C1−) averaged only 0.22. Partial sequencing of 11 candidate genes implicated in shoot architecture, covering 40–90% of full-length DNA, did not provide a conclusive explanation for the altered stem growth. Notably, a single point mutation was observed in CRT3 (an endoplasmic reticulum chaperone that interacts with brassinosteroid signaling) highlighting it as a primary target for future studies. Cytological analysis of meiosis in F1 hybrids between VIROIZ and wild-type plants revealed irregular chromosome pairing with persistent univalents (2–4 per cell), supporting the presence of structural chromosomal rearrangements that may disrupt gene organization and function in VIROIZ. The non-Mendelian segregation of the spreading phenotype, together with the observed meiotic irregularities, suggests that the mutation affects regulatory genes responsive to hormonal signals controlling axillary meristem initiation. The mutant represents a valuable resource for turf-type L. perenne breeding and for studying hormonal regulation of shoot morphogenesis in Poaceae.

Establishment of a new intestinal cell line of the grouper (Cephalopholis sonnerati) and immune response to Vibrio harveyi infection.

Cauliflower (Brassica oleracea var. botrytis L.) is an important member of Cruciferae having chromosome number 2n= 2x=18. The present investigation entitled “Curd Cutting Techniques and Micronutrients Application on Seed Yield and Quality of Cauliflower (Brassica oleracea var. botrytis L.)” was conducted at vegetable seed production farm, Department of Horticulture (Vegetable &amp; Floriculture), BAC, Sabour for two years 2019-20 and 2020-21. There was two level of boron in form of borax (0.3% and 0.4%) and molybdenum (Mo) in the form of ammonium molybdate (0.15% and 0.20%) sprayed at 40 and 60 days after transplanting. Four curd cutting techniques were applied viz., intact curd (S1), scooping (S2), cross cutting (S3) and one fourth curd removal (S4) on variety (Sabour Agrim) the design of the experiment was Factorial Randomised Block Design with 36 treatment combinations which were replicated thrice. The effect of curd cutting techniques revealed that significantly maximum plant height (82.99 cm), number of leaves per plant (21.92), curd polar diameter (12.31cm), curd equilateral diameter (22.79 cm), seed yield per plant (48.67 g), least days taken to maturity of siliqua (183.06 days) were recorded in scooping (S2) central portion of curd was removed these were significantly superior to other curd cutting methods. The minimum plant height (78.82 cm), number of leaves per plant (19.31), curd polar diameter (10.77 cm), curd equilateral diameter (19.46cm), seed yield per plant (20.76 g), and maximum days taken to maturity of Siliqua (184.37) were recorded with (S1) intact curd. The effect of micronutrient application revealed that maximum plant height (84.41cm), number of leaves per plant (22.70), curd polar diameter (12.14 cm), curd equilateral diameter (23.13 cm), seed yield per plant (43.45 g) and least days to taken maturity of siliqua (180.88 days) were recorded with foliar application of 0.3% boron with 0.15% molybdenum (M5). The interaction effect due to curd cutting techniques and micronutrients for number of leaves per plant, curd equilateral diameter and seed yield per plant was found to be significant meaning thereby that different methods of curd cutting influenced with micronutrients and vice-versa., the treatment combinations S2M5 (scooping with 0.3% boron and 0.15% molybdenum) gave the maximum plant height (87.41 cm), number of leaves per plant (24.67), curd polar diameter was (13.81 cm), curd equilateral diameter (25.24 cm), seed yield per plant (63.31 g ) and least days taken to maturity of siliqua (176.50 days).

Abstract The distribution of cytotypes and their contact zones provides insights into the spatial, morphological, and ecological differentiation of individual lineages, as well as their rates of reproductive isolation, gene flow, and/or selection. In this study, we focused on the Pulmonaria officinalis group, which comprises two widely distributed and morphologically similar species, P . obscura and P . officinalis , that differ in chromosome number. Intermediate plants, often of questionable identity, are rarely reported from mixed populations. In addition, several ornamental cultivars exhibit morphological similarities to P . officinalis . We employed flow cytometric relative genome size estimation, chromosome counting, morphometric analysis, and pollen staining methods to evaluate cytotype distribution, morphological variation, and to confirm the hybrid origin of intermediate plants and their frequency. We identified two main cytotypes, each associated with specific taxa, i.e. P . obscura (2 n = 2 x = 14), predominant in the northern regions, and P . officinalis s. str. (2 n = 2 x = 16), more common in southern areas of Central Europe. We also occasionally detected DNA-triploids in natural populations of both taxa and confirmed an intermediate cytotype (2 n = 15), mainly in mixed populations of P . obscura and P . officinalis in natural contact zone, although such populations were rare. The intermediate cytotype displayed differences in relative genome size and chromosome number, as well as several morphological characters (e.g. calyx length and calyx indumentum) compared to the parental taxa. These plants also have lower fertility, with pollen viability ranging from 2 to 33%, compared to their parents, which had pollen viability 70–98%. On the basis of these results, including the confirmation of the hybrid status and the ability to distinguish these plants from both parental taxa, we describe a new hybrid, Pulmonaria × superflua Vejvodová and Kobrlová, as a hybrid between P . obscura and P . officinalis s. str. We also revised the frequency of non-native populations (garden escapes) and explored their potential coexistence with native populations of the P . officinalis complex and forming of the anthropogenic contact zone.

Pregnancy loss is the most common obstetric complication occurring in almost 15% of pregnancies. Of the examined products of conception (POC), approximately 60% of pregnancy losses result from chromosomal abnormalities and copy number variations (CNVs) in embryos, but genetic etiologies of euploid pregnancy loss remain largely unexplained. Previous studies suggest that genetic factors make a significant contribution to embryonic mortality. We aimed to review the results of current genomic studies of gene variants associated with miscarriage, including exome sequencing to look for pathogenic variants in the whole exome, as well as high-coverage whole-genome sequencing in families with miscarriages. We compared the lists of genes causative of or predisposing to miscarriage in parents and POCs. Additionally, we summarize novel genetic variants, which may be responsible for embryonic aneuploidy according to WES/WGS studies. Identification of genes that contribute to pregnancy loss is of importance in understanding the biological pathways that can cause pregnancy loss and an informative approach for discovering the key genes for human development. Knowledge of specific genes that contribute to pregnancy loss could also be valued in designing a diagnostic sequencing panel for patients with recurrent pregnancy loss.

Increasing the number of chromosome sets can increase cell size and improve yields in some crops. Breeding polyploid crops introduces unique challenges compared to diploid species, which has deterred many from exploring the potential benefits. Despite this, recent technological advancements have alleviated some of the challenges related to complex genomes and enabled the improvement of many polyploid crops. Given these advancements, there is a need to review the use of higher ploidy crops and explore potential opportunities for increased chromosome number. Many of the leading bioenergy crops are polyploids and there may be additional opportunities to further diversify feedstocks for emerging bioenergy markets. Such diversification would help to meet the anticipated increase in renewable and sustainable energy demands. In this perspective review, we review polyploid crops and the extent to which ploidy level impacts improvement and production. The advantages and disadvantages of each crop are discussed in the context of their ploidy level and end-use. A special emphasis is given to the current role and potential of polyploidy in creating the next generation of bioenergy feedstocks. Polyploids present challenges to crop improvement due to their complex genomes, but many of these difficulties can and have been overcome with technological advancements. Approaches that facilitate the use of higher ploidy crops open a path to capturing the many benefits of polyploidy, such as increased fruit and seed size, vigor, diversity, biomass, and yield quality. However, these benefits are not observed across all species. This further emphasizes the need to study higher ploidy in traditionally diploid crops.