Comparative transcriptomics of CAZy enzymes in white- and brown-rot agaricomycetes: Evolutionary insights into lignocellulose degradation and the relevance of GH16 glycoside hydrolase functional divergence.

The intestinal microbiota of fish plays a crucial role in host condition and health, exhibiting region-specific functions influenced by dietary components. This study evaluated the effects of mushroom stem meals from Agaricus bisporus (AB), Lentinula edodes (LE), and Pleurotus ostreatus (PO), used as sustainable ingredients on the intestinal microbiota and histomorphology of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Experimental diets containing 30% mushroom stem meals were tested for 42 days under standard conditions in juvenile rainbow trout (120.1 ± 0.4 g). Mushroom stem meals did not affect the integrity of the intestinal mucosa while inducing a subtle region-specific shift in the intestinal microbial communities. These changes were reflected in intra-individual and inter-individual diversity differences among diets. Specifically, Shannon index decreased in the pyloric caeca (PC), anterior (AI) and posterior intestine (PI) of fish fed the AB diet, while the observed richness and Faith’s phylogenetic diversity showed a reduction in the AI and PI regions of fish fed the LE diet. Regarding composition, a consistent pattern found across the three intestinal regions was the high abundance of Desulfobacterota in fish fed the control diet (0% mushroom stem meals). Regarding the mushroom stem-based diets, the AB diet promoted an increase in the abundance of potentially beneficial bacteria, such as Mycoplasma in the PC and AI, Legionella exclusively in the AI, and Weissella in the PI. In contrast, the PO diet increased the abundance of Paenibacillus in the PC, while the LE diet did not markedly alter genus-level abundances. Region-specific patterns suggested microbial shifts in the PC were related to digestion and nutrient metabolism, while changes in the AI may reflect transient colonization by diet-derived bacteria linked to niche specialization. The PI microbiota was comparatively conserved and associated with carbohydrate fermentation. These findings provide insights into the region-specific effects of circular dietary ingredients and highlight the potential use of mushroom stem meals as functional ingredients due to prebiotic effect as they beneficially modulate the intestinal microbiota and support gut health in rainbow trout.Supplementary InformationThe online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1038/s41598-025-27707-1.

Plastic packaging poses significant environmental and health risks due to its non-degradability and its accumulation as microplastics in soil, plants, and food chains. Fungal biocomposites derived from lignocellulosic biomass offer a sustainable alternative for biodegradable packaging. This study evaluated mycelium biocomposites formed by growing Pleurotus ostreatus and Ganoderma lucidum on sawdust, corn cob, and wheat straw. Biocomposites were characterized using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), SEM-EDX, and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). Water absorption, compressive strength, and biodegradability were assessed to evaluate composite performance. Ganoderma lucidum biocomposites demonstrated superior thermal stability and mechanical integrity due to dense, interwoven hyphal networks, lower porosity, and higher chitin and glucan content, resulting in slower biodegradation and enhanced durability. Conversely, Pleurotus ostreatus biocomposites exhibited higher water absorption (up to 65%) and porous, fibrous structures, making them more suitable for flexible, aerated applications requiring faster biodegradability. Both fungi efficiently converted agro-waste into functional composites. The results demonstrate that fungal biocomposites can effectively replace conventional plastic packaging while providing dual benefits: reducing plastic-related microplastic contamination and waste reuse. Additionally, these biocomposites serve as biofertilizers, potentially enhancing plant growth and yield. This work presents an innovative, environmentally friendly solution for sustainable sapling packaging that addresses the critical need to reduce plastic consumption and associated environmental risks.

Energy-efficient and formaldehyde-free biomass-based boards derived from Pleurotus Ostreatus substrate waste: A novel sustainable utilization strategy

Putative transcription factor Nrg1 is involved in the hyphal branching and the cell wall structure formation in the filamentous fungus Pleurotus ostreatus.

Comprehensive physiological, transcriptomic, and metabolomic analyses reveal that preservation paper treatment mediates the AsA-GSH cycle and energy metabolism pathways to delay the ageing mechanism of Pleurotus ostreatus

The growing environmental pollution and the imminent depletion of natural resources highlight the need for alternative building materials derived from renewable sources, including those that promote waste recycling and biodegradability. One promising alternative is biocomposites produced from filamentous fungal mycelium. In Argentina, orange and lemon peels are among the most abundant organic waste generated by the citrus industry. This study explores the development of a sustainable insulating biocomposite using Pleurotus ostreatus mycelium grown on mixtures of citrus peels, paper, and cardboard. The test specimens were prepared using varying concentrations of these components. The resulting fungal biocomposite exhibited a density approximately ten times higher than expanded polystyrene, with drying shrinkage ranging from 28% to 51%, depending on the formulation. Key properties were evaluated, including compressive strength (σ10 = 7–33 kPa), bulk density (ρ = 152–181 kg/m3), and thermal conductivity (λ = 0.29–0.36 W/mK), indicating advantageous performance for thermal insulation in construction applications. Specimens containing orange peel also demonstrated repellent activity against Triatoma infestans, main vector of transmission of Chagas’ disease, attributed to the residual limonene content retained from the citrus peels. This fungal biocomposite aligns with principles of green chemistry and circular economy, offering a biodegradable, low-impact solution with potential use in construction. The citrus waste proved to be an effective substrate for mycelial growth, producing a material with desirable mechanical and thermal properties, and added resistance to biodeterioration.

Fungi of thePleurotusgenus, are known for their health-promoting properties. They are grown on a wide range of lignocellulosic substrates, including i.e. straw, rice hulls and corn residues. There are numerous literature reports proving that the composition of the culture substrate affects the growth rate and yield of oyster mushrooms. The aim of the present study was to optimize the mixture of the culture medium, composed of agro-industrial waste, for the cultivation ofPleurotus ostreatusin order to achieve maximum yield and the fastest mycelial growth. In addition, the chemical composition of selected wastes was determined and the possibility of using spentP. ostreatussubstrate as a biostimulant for plant growth was assessed. The best results in terms of yield, mycelial growth rate, and time required for substrate colonization, primordia formation, and first harvest, were obtained for straw with spent brewery grains and for straw with wheat bran in a proportion of 70/30%, while the mixture of wheat straw, wheat bran and sugar beet pulp in a proportion of 50/25/25% gave slightly poorer results. The maximum yield of 51.7 g/bag and the fastest growth was obtained for the substrate with the addition of spent brewery grains. Substrate formula 70% wheat straw, with 30% addition of spent brewery grains, gave the fastest time for substrate colonization, primordia formation and the first harvest (16 days, 20 days, 28 days respectively). The study carried out by ICP-Spectrometry technique confirmed that thePleurotusspent substrate is a source of valuable elements (Ca, Cu, Fe, K, P, Mg, Mn, S), indicating its biostimulatory potential in agriculture. Enzyme activity associated with substrate (carbohydrate) degradation, performed using a commercial API ZYM assay increased significantly in straw with spent brewery grains and straw with wheat bran mixture. The highest total levels of degradation products were examined by photometric method using commercially available Hach Lange cuvette tests. The highest total content ofPleurotussubstrate degradation products, including organic acids, orthophosphate, ammonia nitrogen, nitrate, and nitrite, was found in the substrate supplemented with brewery grains. Their levels increased significantly compared to the control, indicating enhanced degradation activity in this substrate. Substrate after cultivation of higher fungi (Spent Mushroom Substrate-SMS) contains large amounts of valuable elements and can affect the growth and yield of crops. Their amount varies depending on the substrate used and depends on the availability of sources of C and N. Studies of the growth rate ofP. ostreatuson a wide range of lignocellulosic substrates, i.e. straw, corn residues, rice husks, among others, are known. The authors of the present study extended these studies to evaluate the biodegradation of waste materials that have not yet been used in the culture of higher fungi (brewery spent grain, wheat bran, beet pulp), making a significant contribution to the discipline. This study supports the implementation of the Sustainable Development Goals, by promoting the valorization of agro-industrial waste through sustainable biotechnological processes.Supplementary InformationThe online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1038/s41598-025-26843-y.

Pleurotus ostreatus is valued for its nutritional, medicinal, economic, and ecological benefits and is widely used in the food, pharmaceutical, and environmental protection industries. Pleurotus ostreatus, as a highly perishable edible fungus, faces significant challenges in supply chain quality control and food safety due to its short shelf life. As consumer demand for food freshness and full traceability increases, there is an urgent need to establish a reliable traceability system that enables real-time monitoring, spoilage prevention, and quality assurance. This study focuses on the Pleurotus ostreatus supply chain and designs and implements a multi-role flexible traceability system that integrates blockchain and the Internet of Things. The system collects key production and storage environment parameters in real time through sensor networks and enhances data accuracy and robustness using an improved adaptive weighted fusion algorithm, enabling precise monitoring of the growth environment and quality risks. The system adopts a "link-chain" mapping mechanism for multi-chain storage and dynamic reorganization of business processes. It incorporates attribute-based encryption strategies and smart contracts to support tiered data access and secure sharing among multiple parties. Key information is stored on the blockchain to prevent tampering, while auxiliary data is stored in off-chain databases and the Interplanetary File System to ensure efficient and verifiable data queries. Deployed at Shandong Qihe Ecological Agriculture Co., Ltd., No. 517, Xilou Village, Kunlun Town, Zichuan District, 255000, Zibo City, Shandong Province, China, the system covers 12 cultivation units and 60 sensor nodes, recording over 50,000 traceable data points. Experimental results demonstrate that the system outperforms baseline methods in query latency, data consistency, and environmental monitoring accuracy. The improved fusion algorithm reduced the total variance of environmental data by 20%. In practical application, the system reduced the spoilage rate of Pleurotus ostreatus by approximately 12.3% and increased the quality inspection pass rate by approximately 15.4%, significantly enhancing the supply chain's quality control and food safety capabilities. The results show that the framework is feasible and scalable in terms of information credibility and operational efficiency and significantly improves food quality and safety monitoring throughout the production, storage, and distribution of Pleurotus ostreatus. This study provides a viable technological path for spoilage prevention, quality tracking, and digital food safety supervision, offering valuable insights for both food science research and practical applications.

Deep-blue emitting fibers: tracking aggregation of a hydrophobin through intrinsic fluorescence.

All through human history, mushrooms have been valued as nutritional foods. They have been extensively used as nutraceuticals and as a source for the generation of pharmaceutical-grade medicines to treat a wide variety of diseases, including cancer. During the past more than 3 decades, numerous scientific studies on medicinal mushrooms have been conducted in Japan, China, Korea, the USA, Russia, the UK, Pakistan, Turkiye, as well as other countries. A limited number of highly purified compounds derived from some of these mushrooms are now used as pharmaceutical-grade products in medicine-especially for cancer treatment. The most well-known medicinal mushrooms worldwide, both edible and inedible, include Ganoderma lucidum, Lentinus edodes, Phellinus linteus, Porio cocos, Auricularia auricula, Hericium erinaceus, Grifola frondosa, Flammulina velutipes, Pleurotus ostreatus, Trametes versicolor, Tremella fuciformis, and Schizophyllum ensemble. The regular consumption of edible mushrooms is said to offer significant health benefits. Some compounds recently isolated from these mushrooms have been found to exhibit potent immunomodulatory, antitumor, cardiovascular, antiviral, antibacterial, antiparasitic, hepatoprotective, and antidiabetic characteristics. This study provides an overview of mushrooms with medicinal potential and explores the unique health-promoting properties of some bioactive compounds derived from them.

Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense (Foc), the causal agent of Fusarium wilt of banana, can persist in the soil for extended periods as chlamydospores or endophytes in weeds, complicating control measures. No single control strategy is effective. Biological agents present an increasingly important control option. This study explored the potential of the spent P. ostreatus substrates (SPoS) to suppress Foc R1 in a field with high Foc inoculum, following laboratory and greenhouse studies that highlighted the potential of P. ostreatus as a biocontrol agent against Foc. A susceptible cultivar ‘Sukali Ndizi’ and a resistant cultivar ‘Mpologoma’ were used for the study. SPoS was compared with farmyard manure (FYM), a combination of SPoS with FYM and a control without treatment. A one-time application of the treatments at planting did not consistently and significantly (p > 0.05) reduce the prevalence and severity of leaf symptoms, pseudostem splitting and corm damage in the mother and ratoon plants of the susceptible cultivar. No symptoms occurred in ‘Mpologoma’. SPoS applications at planting and after every two months over an 8-month period did not significantly reduce leaf symptoms and corm damage in ‘Sukali Ndizi’, while it increased pseudostem splitting. The marginal and irregular reductions in FW could be due to an observed high weevil damage in SPoS treatments and other confounding factors such as weather, SPoS quality, and pathogen load in the field. Further research on weevil–SPoS interactions, use of P. ostreatus mycelium-rich substrate, and other confounding factors is crucial for fine tuning P. ostreatus use.

We developed and evaluated a compact mushroom fruiting chamber equipped with Internet of Things technologies, designed to support decentralized urban agriculture. The system was constructed from a retrofitted glass-door refrigerator and integrated with Internet-connected sensors and a custom microcontroller to monitor and regulate temperature and humidity continuously. The control unit managed key variables, including temperature and relative humidity, during the cultivation of Pleurotus ostreatus mushrooms. Experimental trials assessed the effectiveness of the IoT-based system in maintaining optimal growth conditions by dynamically adjusting parameters tailored to the fungus’s specific physiological requirements during fruiting. The prototype successfully maintained a stable cultivation environment, achieving an average temperature of 25.0 °C (±0.7 °C) and relative humidity of 90% (±8%). Under optimized conditions (18 °C, with the cultivation block plastic cover preserved), mushroom yield reached 230 ± 2 g per block, corresponding to a biological efficiency of 44% and an estimated productivity of up to 612.04 kg m−2 per year. Furthermore, the system achieved a water footprint of only 4.39 L kg−1 of fresh mushrooms, significantly lower than that typically reported for conventional cultivation methods. These results demonstrate the feasibility of an efficient, compact, and water-saving controlled environment for mushroom cultivation, enabled by IoT-based technologies and organic residue substrates. Remote monitoring and control capabilities support urban food security, reduce transport-related emissions, optimize water use, and promote sustainable practices within a circular economy framework. The system’s adaptability suggests potential scalability to other crops and urban agricultural contexts.

The present study investigated the bioconversion of spent mushroom substrate (SMS) and arecanut husk (AH) into nutrient-rich organic manure using microbial decomposers. Considering the large quantities of SMS and AH generated annually and their slow degradability, the research aimed to develop an eco-friendly method to manage these agro-industrial residues while improving soil fertility. Proximate analysis of SMS and AH revealed high carbon content with a wide C:N ratio and low nutrient levels, indicating the need for microbial intervention. Composting experiments under greenhouse conditions employed various combinations of AH and SMS (90:10, 80:20, 70:30 and 100 %) enriched with microbial decomposers (Paenibacillus mucilaginosus, Bacillus subtilis and Pleurotus ostreatus) along with urea, gliricidia and rock phosphate. Among the treatments, 70 % + 30 % SMS (T5) produced well-decomposed compost that met the quality standards for organic manure (FCO, 1985). Pot culture experiments on French bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) demonstrated that integration of organic manure with recommended NPK doses, particularly at 125 % OM (T6), significantly enhanced plant growth, leaf area and soil biological fertility. The study concludes that co-composting AH and SMS using microbial decomposers is an effective, economically viable and environmentally sustainable method for producing high-quality organic manure, promoting plant growth and improving soil health.

Pleurotus tuoliensis is a rare edible and medicinal mushroom (Dai Y et al. 2017). In China, P. tuoliensis is typically found in the arid regions of the Gobi Desert around the Junggar Basin in Xinjiang (Zhang et al. 2018). It is a saprophytic or parasitic fungus that lives on Ferula spp. In July 2024, brown rot disease was observed in the fruiting body of P. tuoliensis in a mushroom enterprise in Xinjiang. The average incidence rate of disease was about 90%, and almost all fruiting bodies in the mushroom shed were seriously affected. In the early stage of the disease, yellow sticky spots were observed on the fruiting body. In the later stage, the caps, stipes, and folds of the mushroom had sticky rot and yellow-brown pus, with a slight stench, which led to a significant decline of 30-50% in yield and economic losses . The fruiting bodies of P. tuoliensis at different stages of disease were selected as pathogen isolation samples. After disinfection with 75% ethanol, the fruiting bodies were washed with sterile deionized water, mashed, and turned into a suspension. This suspension was inoculated on the Luria-Bertani (LB) plate and cultured at 37 °C for 12-24 h. Single colonies were picked to obtain pure strains, which were preserved at 4 °C. The colony was round (diameters of 1.5 ~ 2.5 mm), non-fluorescent, milky yellow, with protrusions in the center. Gram staining revealed that the isolated bacterial strain was Gram-negative. Electron microscopy revealed that the bacterial cells were rod-shaped (average size: 1.1 - 1.5 × 0.4 - 0.6 μm), round at both ends, and had a rough surface. The 16S rDNA of the pathogen was extracted and amplified by using universal primers 27F/1492R (Weisburg et al. 1991). The BLAST alignment results showed that the sequence similarity between pathogen EA6 (GenBank accession number: PV300596) and Ewingella americana (OQ456009) was 100%. Furthermore, phylogenetic trees were constructed using the neighbor-joining method and MEGA12 program. Based on morphological characteristics, physiological and biochemical indexes, and sequence similarity, the isolated bacterial strain (EA6) was identified as E. americana. Finally, the pathogenicity of the strain was examined. Using sterile distilled water as the control, the pathogenic bacterial suspension was sprayed on healthy mature fruiting bodies of P. tuoliensis. After 48 h of incubation, the fruiting bodies in the control group had no symptoms. All inoculated fruiting bodies showed brown rot symptoms, which were similar to those observed in the field. The pathogen was isolated again from the inoculated fruiting bodies and identified as E. americana (based on morphology and 16S rRNA molecular identification), which conformed to Koch's postulates. E. americana has been reported as the pathogen causing brown spot disease in Lentinula edodes, Pleurotus ostreatus, and Naematelia aurantialba (Reyes et al. 2004; Yang et al. 2023), as well as internal stipe necrosis in Agaricus bisporus (Lee et al. 2009). To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report on brown rot in P. tuoliensis caused by E. americana. In this study, the physiological symptoms of brown spot disease, caused by E. americana in P. tuoliensis, were clarified in Xinjiang. The findings of this study will serve as a foundation for in-depth research on host-pathogen interaction mechanisms and promoting the breeding of P. tuoliensis varieties with specific disease-resistance genes.

Mycoremediation, the use of fungi to remove or neutralize environmental pollutants, represents a sustainable and eco-friendly approach to addressing agricultural land contamination. Mushrooms, belonging primarily to the Basidiomycetes group, possess unique enzymatic systems and biosorption capabilities that enable them to degrade pesticides, dyes, hydrocarbons, and heavy metals. The mycelium of white-rot fungi such as Phanerochaete chrysosporium and Pleurotus ostreatus secretes extracellular enzymes like laccases and peroxidases, which effectively oxidize recalcitrant organic compounds and facilitate lignin and cellulose degradation. Beyond pollutant removal, mushrooms also generate bioactive compounds, including β-glucans, polysaccharides, and sterols, with significant medicinal properties such as antitumor, immunomodulatory, antioxidant, and antimicrobial activities. Applications in agriculture highlight their potential in pesticide detoxification, heavy metal biosorption, and dye decolorization, with species such as Pleurotus pulmonarius, Ganoderma lucidum, and Trametes versicolor serving as model organisms. Furthermore, spent mushroom substrate (SMS) provides added value as a soil conditioner and biochar feedstock, enhancing soil fertility and promoting sustainable crop production. Genetic engineering and integration with plants and microbes present future opportunities to enhance efficiency and resilience. Mycoremediation thus combines environmental restoration with agricultural sustainability, offering a dual benefit of pollution control and ecosystem health improvement.

This study focused on developing a fungal biomaterial to treat water contaminated with anionic Congo Red dye through adsorption. A local strain of Pleurotus ostreatus, an edible basidiomycete mushroom, was isolated from Algeria, and used as the primary source for chitosan extraction. By-products from oyster mushroom cultivation were collected for this study. The extraction process resulted in a chitosan yield of 0.512 ± 0.18 g per 100 g of biomass. The chitosan powder (with 81.97 ± 9.70% degree of deacetylation) converted to membrane was tested to remove dye. The thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) of the chitosan membrane shows that it is characterized by important thermal stability. The kinetics experiments were conducted under moderate agitation, and the following parameters were studied: initial pH (4–12); initial dye concentrations (10–80 mg/L); adsorbent dose (0.02–0.15 g/25 mL) and temperature (25–55 °C). After one day of contact between the Congo Red dye (40 mg/L) and chitosan membrane (0.06 g/25 mL) at pH 4 and at 25 °C, the percentage removal reached 95.6 ± 2.47%, corresponding to an adsorption capacity of 14.55 ± 4.35 mg/g. Adsorption kinetic of Congo Red was studied and modeled using the pseudo first-order, pseudo-second-order and intraparticle diffusion models. The adsorption process was found to follow a pseudo-second-order kinetic model. The Langmuir isotherm is applicable to this adsorption, indicating that adsorption is driven by chemisorption. The study demonstrates that the chitosan derived of chitin extracted from local Pleurotus ostreatus by-products is effective in removing dye from aqueous solutions.

Abstract Pleurotus ostreatus (oyster mushroom) is a globally cultivated and highly nutritious mushroom. However, viral infections posed significant challenges to its cultivation, causing tremendous loss of quality and yield. The fruiting bodies with the symptom of lace-like malformation were observed in a farm from Fangshan district, Beijing. To explore the possible associated virus(es), P. ostreatus was purified from a single fruiting body and the mycelium collected for ribosomal RNA-depleted total RNA sequencing. Eight RNA mycoviruses were identified through bioinformatic analysis and experimental verification, including three with double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) genomes in the Partitiviridae family, two with circular RNA genomes in the families of Quambiviridae and Dumbiviridae , one with negative-sense single-stranded RNA (−ssRNA) genome in the family Mymonaviridae , and two with positive-sense single-stranded RNA (+ssRNA) genomes (one in Deltaflexiviridae and one unclassified). The characteristics of these viruses, such as genome structure, conserved domains and their phylogenetic relationships with known viruses were further determined and seven were demonstrated to be novel viruses. These findings enriched our understanding of the virus diversity in P. ostreatus , providing valuable information for further research on the interaction between the viruses and the host mushroom to improve its cultivation.

The current study examines the development and characterization of green insulation panels from oyster mushroom (Pleurotus ostreatus) mycelium grown on wheat straw substrate. Traditional insulation materials like polystyrene and polyurethane are energy intensive, non- biodegradable, and often flammable, making sustainable substitutes desirable. Mycelium, which is the vegetative part of fungi, grows spontaneously onto organic substrates to form porous, light-weight composites with intrinsic fire and heat resistance. Two 200 × 195 × 60 mm boards were made in this study without incorporating chemical additives or binders. The wheat straw substrate was pasteurized and inoculated with a mushroom spawn and then incubated in silicone molds at 24–28 °C for 10–14 days until the colonization process was completed. Consolidation was then done by oven-drying at 60°C. We tested the thermal conductivity, water absorption, compressive strength, and fire performance of the panels. The tests registered good insulation with a thermal conductivity of about 0.062 W/m·K. The natural fiber composites exhibited moderate water absorption with 38% water absorbed. The fire tests exhibited inherent fire safety with ignition retarding, limited flame spread, low char depth, and minimum mass loss. Its 0.065 MPa compressive strength further guaranteed that it was ideal for non- load-bearing applications. Overall, these findings confirm that mycelium-wheat straw panels, being light in weight, biodegradable, and sustainable materials, are an ideal replacement for conventional insulation material in green buildings. This research is a model of the possibility of upcycling wastage from agriculture while producing usable, sustainable building materials that contribute to green building methods.

This study presents a new nanocomposite obtained from the growth substrate of the macromycete Pleurotus ostreatus (POBM) and SiO2 nanospheres synthesized by a modified Stӧber method and its application as an effective adsorbent for the separation of Cd2+ from polluted aqueous media. Metal adsorption capacity was quantified by using adsorption isotherms and kinetic models.