Plasma Chloride Concentrations Research Articles

An investigation of interrelated factors affecting the flow and concentration of salt-induced nasal secretion in the duck, Anas platyrhynchos

1. 1. Short-term electrolyte and fluid balance studies in three ducks revealed that the salt gland was responsible for the excretion of 70–100 per cent of a salt load. 2. 2. The rate of chloride secretion, in salt-loaded ducks, was critically related to increments in plasma chloride concentration, above threshold. 3. 3. A positive correlation was observed, in all ducks, between the rate of chloride secretion and the rate of fluid flow. 4. 4. The concentration of chloride in the secretion, albeit restricted between approximately 400–600 m-equiv/1., was found to correlate significantly with rate of flow in seven out of the eleven ducks. 5. 5. In addition to the rate-dependent effect, the chloride concentration in nasal fluid appeared to depend also on the plasma level.

Electrolytes and water in the brain and cerebrospinal fluid of the foetal sheep and guinea-pig.

1. Samples of cisternal cerebrospinal fluid (c.s.f.) and blood plasma have been obtained nearly simultaneously from foetal sheep of different ages, the foetus having been exteriorized and maintained in a normal state with respect to its blood gases and arterial pH. The brains were removed from these foetuses and also from foetal guinea-pigs after exsanguination.2. A comprehensive study has been made of the concentrations of water, chloride, sodium, potassium, calcium and magnesium in blood plasma, c.s.f. and brain from foetal sheep and in brain from foetal guinea-pigs during development in utero. Maternal arterial blood plasma, cisternal c.s.f. and brain from the sheep and brain from the guinea-pig have been analysed for comparison.3. Concentrations of the ions analysed in foetal blood plasma are similar to those found by others in the sheep and other species. In the case of calcium, the results suggest an active maintenance of the concentration of this ion in foetal plasma by the placenta.4. The chloride concentration in c.s.f. at ages between 65 days and term (147 days) averaged 1.19 times that in foetal plasma, but only 1.08 at 45-50 days; the sodium concentration in c.s.f. was also slightly reduced at this time. The increase in the c.s.f./plasma ratios for chloride and sodium appears to coincide with the first development of the blood-brain and blood-c.s.f. barriers to non-electrolytes.5. Magnesium was at a slightly higher concentration in c.s.f. than in plasma at all foetal ages and did not vary with age. The concentrations of potassium and calcium in c.s.f. were high at early ages and fell to reach adult concentrations after birth: the mechanisms determining the concentrations of the various ions in c.s.f. develop at very different, largely independent, rates.6. The water content of the cerebral hemispheres of the foetal sheep was stable at 90% of the wet weight till 105 days and fell thereafter. The contents of chloride, sodium and potassium followed paraboloid relations with age. Chloride and sodium reached a peak of 62 and 81 m-equiv/kg respectively between 89 and 105 days in the sheep. Potassium was at a minimum of 65 m-equiv/kg at the same time. The content of water and these electrolytes in the cerebral hemispheres of the foetal guinea-pig underwent similar changes, the maxima and minimum occurring as in the sheep at two-thirds of the total length of the pregnancy, namely 65 days in the guinea-pig. At 46 days in the guinea-pig, chloride in brain reached 53 m-equiv/kg, sodium was 68 m-equiv/kg and potassium was 75 m-equiv/kg. In contrast to the sheep, no reversal of the sodium-potassium ratio occurred. These changes in water and electrolytes probably represent a rise, a peak and a decrease in the volume of the extracellular space of cerebral cortex, but changes in the volume occupied by a cell-type, containing much intracellular chloride and sodium, could also contribute to this phenomenon.7. The calcium content in the cerebral hemispheres of the foetal sheep remained at about 3.0 m-equiv/kg throughout pregnancy. Magnesium in the cerebral hemispheres of both the foetal sheep and the guinea-pig showed a trough in concentration during pregnancy which corresponded approximately in position to the minimum in potassium content and the maxima in chloride and sodium contents. Lowest values were 9.6 m-equiv/kg at 105 days in the sheep and 9.5 m-equiv/kg at 51 days in the guinea-pig.

Plasma Chloride and Sodium, and Chloride Space in the European Eel, Anguilla Anguilla L

ABSTRACT New intra-vascular cannulation techniques are described, and also an extracorporal blood circuit containing an artificial heart and a counting cell. This makes possible a continuous study of the radioactivity of the blood. Plasma chloride concentration varies greatly in fresh-water eels despite good sodium regulation. The fresh-water to sea-water adaptation of eels is frequently accompanied by a temporary hypermineralization of the internal medium. This necessitates a high degree of cellular euryhalinity. The sea-water-adapted eel maintains strict homeostasis of its plasma chloride and sodium. The chloride distribution space decreases by 10% when eels are transferred from fresh water to sea water. The internal distribution of chloride is also modified and its fluxes between the ion compartments of the body are considerably increased.

Variations of Water and Electrolyte Composition of Muscle and Skin in Infants Suffering Acute Dehydration

Extract: Variations in the composition of muscle tissue have been studied by neutron activation analysis of microbiopsies in 66 children dehydrated as a result of diarrhea. In the great majority of cases (53 children) no significant potassium depletion was found in muscle. In 23 cases of hypertonic dehydration, muscle tissue showed an important loss of water in 20 cases and a significant increase of sodium content in 20 cases and of chloride content in 15 cases. Hypertonicity of tissular water was observed. In hypotonic dehydration (21 cases), muscle tissue remained normally hydrated and in one-third of all cases, a low sodium and chloride content was found. Hypo-tonicity of tissular water was observed. Analysis of skin tissue, performed in 21 of these children, showed essential differences; in the majority of cases, including those with hypotonic dehydration, there was an important reduction of the water content of skin without any detectable changes in the amount of electrolytes. The differences in behavior of muscle and skin tissues in acute dehydration were confirmed by the study of seven children with hypotonic dehydration at the time of admission and after complete recovery. In those cases, the increase of cutaneous hydration during treatment was not accompanied by any significant variations in the amount of muscle water. The absence of any significant correlation between variations of plasma chloride concentration and the concentration of chloride in skin water confirms the experimental data showing that, in contrast to other tissues, i.e., muscle, the movement of water between plasma and skin is not accompanied by parallel movement of chloride ions. Speculation: The data presented in this study suggest that skin may be considered as a mobile depot for water which acts as an emergency regulator for the maintenance of water content of tissues that are richer in cells, such as muscle. Hypotonic dehydration represents a good illustration of this statement. Since only 14 of the 66 dehydrated children studied presented a significantly decreased value of muscle potassium, it seems likely that there exists no systematic cellular depletion of potassium in acute dehydration consecutive to diarrhea of short duration.

EFFECT OF DIETARY EDTA ON THE ABILITY OF CHICKS TO TOLERATE SODIUM CHLORIDE IN THE WATER

Broiler chicks, allocated in a randomized block design, were fed four diets containing ethylene diamine tetraacetic acid (EDTA) at 0, 0.1, 0.2 and 0.4% of the diet and drinking water with a high salt concentration (6000 ppm). A control group received tap water and the EDTA-free diet. The addition of 6000 ppm NaCl in the drinking water had no effect on weight gain or feed conversion. Similarly, the inclusion of up to 0.4% EDTA in the feed had no adverse effect on weight gain. Analyses of packed-cell volume (PCV) and plasma sodium, chloride and calcium concentrations showed no changes as a result of treatment. Water consumption almost doubled for the chicks subjected to high salt water regimens compared with the control. Two groups of chicks received the EDTA-free diet, and significantly (P < 0.10) higher mortality was found for the group on the salt water compared with the tap water controls. The mortality in the former was also significantly (P < 0.10) higher than for the group receiving 0.2% EDTA in the diet and salt water. The chicks on the 0.4% EDTA diet had significantly (P < 0.05) higher mortality than control chicks on tap water and those chicks receiving salt water and diets containing 0.1% and 0.2% EDTA. Postmortem examination indicated that ascites and widespread edema were the causes of death in chicks that drank salt water and consumed diets containing no EDTA or 0.4% EDTA. The death of chicks on treatments that resulted in low mortality rates was not attributable to ascites. The reason for the apparent beneficial effect of feeding 0.2% EDTA in the diet in conjunction with the salt water remains open to conjecture.

Changes in plasma sodium, potassium and chloride concentrations in pregnancy and the puerperium, with plasma and serum osmolality.

SummarySerial estimations of plasma sodium, potassium and chloride concentrations, with plasma and serum osmolality, have been made during pregnancy and the early puerperium. Both sodium and potassium concentration decrease until 28 weeks, after which both rise, potassium significantly so. Plasma chloride concentration and serum osmolality rise significantly from 10 to 37 weeks, but plasma osmolality falls below the serum value as pregnancy progresses, and this difference is significant at 37 weeks gestation. There are significant increases in plasma potassium and sodium concentrations and of both plasma and serum osmolality in the early puerperium, when plasma chloride concentration falls. The possible physiological significance of these findings is discussed. Plasma is preferred to serum for the estimation of osmolality during pregnancy.

Value of plasma chloride concentration and acid-base status in the differential diagnosis of hyperparathyroidism from other causes of hypercalcaemia.

A study is reported of the estimation of plasma chloride concentration and acid-base status in the differentiation of primary hyperparathyroidism from all other causes of hypercalcaemia. In the two groups of patients studied, all of whom had hypercalcaemia, there was complete separation between the two groups on the basis of plasma chloride concentration and acid-base status. In 16 patients with primary hyperparathyroidism the increase in plasma chloride concentration and associated metabolic acidosis could have been accounted for by the known renal tubular effects of parathyroid hormone. In 13 patients with hypercalcaemia due to various other causes the decrease in plasma chloride concentration and associated metabolic alkalosis could be accounted for either by the known effects of an excess of calcium-ion on the renal tubules, or perhaps by suppression of endogenous parathyroid hormone secretion. In patients with hypercalcaemia and hypophosphataemia of ;pseudohyperparathyroidism' associated with non-endocrine tumours it is postulated that the low plasma chloride concentrations and metabolic alkalosis found in these patients were due either to a differing biological activity of the parathyroid-hormone-like polypeptide secreted by the tumour cells, or possibly to simultaneous secretion by these cells of an ACTH-like polypeptide.

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN BABY WEIGHT AND CHANGES IN MATERNAL WEIGHT, TOTAL BODY WATER, PLASMA VOLUME, ELECTROLYTES AND PROTEINS AND URINARY OESTRIOL EXCRETION

SummaryPlasma volume, total body water, plasma protein concentration, serum sodium, potassium and chloride concentrations and urinary oestriol excretion were estimated at approximately 30, 34 and 38 weeks gestation in 20 primigravidae with high weight gain (0.64 kg. per week), 13 with normal weight gain (0.36–0.54 kg. per week) and 20 with low weight gain (0.27 kg. per week or less). The women with large plasma volumes and total body water volumes produced large babies. The greater the intravascular protein mass the greater was the weight of the baby. Neither urinary oestriol nor serum electrolyte levels were related to either maternal weight gain or weight of the baby. The higher the weight gain the greater was the total body water volume, the plasma volume and the incidence of oedema.

Osmotic adjustment in the euryhaline teleostAphanius dispar (Cyprinodontidae)

Osmotic pressure and concentration of chloride, sodium and potassium in plasma and total water contents in the euryhaline teleostAplianius dispar were examined.

Fluid and Electrolyte Metabolism of Neonatal Pigs: I. Variation with age in blood and plasma composition

SUMMARY Haematocrit, plasma osmolality and plasma sodium, potassium, chloride, inorganic phosphate and total protein concentrations were measured in healthy piglets aged from birth to 30 days old. All showed significant variations with age. Changes observed in blood and plasma composition immediately after birth were attributed to an expansion in plasma volume.

Excessive drinking (polydipsia) in a galápagos mockingbird ( Nesomimus)

1. 1. A species of Galápagos mockingbird Nesomimus parvulus on a diet of insects, goat meat and bread drank between 14 and 30 per cent of its body weight/day in distilled water. As the NaCl concentration of the drinking water was increased to 300 mM, the amount drunk increased. Lesser amounts of 400 and 500 mM NaCl were drunk. The maximum cloacal fluid to plasma chloride concentration ratio was 3·2–3·6. 2. 2. Another Galápagos mockingbird species, Nesomimus macdonaldi, on the same diet drank 52 to 89 per cent of its body weight/day in distilled water, an excessive consumption of water. As the salinity of the drinking water was increased in 100 mM steps, the amount drunk remained constant until a precipitous decline occurred on 400 mM NaCl. The maximum cloacal fluid to plasma chloride concentration ratio was estimated as 3·4–4.·1. On a dry diet (chicken mash), drinking varied between 54 and 119 per cent body weight/day. This species feeds partly in the intertidal zone on marine invertebrates and probably has no access to fresh water for long periods of time. The cause of the pronounced polydipsia observed and its relevance to adaptation of this species to arid conditions deserve futher study.

Plasma Standard Bicarbonate and Chloride Concentrations in Cattle and Sheep

SUMMARY The mean concentration of plasma standard bicarbonate in 168 venous blood samples from 144 cattle was 23 · 4 m-equiv./l. ( sd 1 · 59). Plasma chloride was determined in 127 of these samples and the mean concentration was 104 · 2 m-equiv./l. ( sd 3 · 92). The cattle sampled were of various beef and dairy breeds, males (castrated) and females, and were on diets varying from all-hay to high concentrate-low roughage mixtures. There was no evidence of systemic acidosis in the cattle fed high concentrate diets. A separate group of thirty-six steers had mean plasma contents of 28 · 0 ( sd 2 · 12)) m-equiv./l. standard bicarbonate and 97 · 6 m-equiv./l. ( sd 3 · 19) chloride, thus suggesting a mild metabolic alkalosis. The cause of this was not determined but could have been due to mild dehydration. Twenty miscellaneous sheep on a variety of diets had mean plasma standard bicarbonate levels of 25 · 8 m-equiv./l. ( sd 1 · 23) and 107 · 6 m-equiv./l. ( sd 2 · 78) plasma chloride and the respective values in nine sucking calves were 24 · 3 m-equiv./l. ( sd 1 · 09) and 99 · 3 m-equiv./l. ( sd 2 · 25). Repeated sampling at intervals of a few hours in a heifer and in a wether indicated only small short-term variations in plasma bicarbonate and chloride. Day-to-day variations were also quite small as indicated in five heifers sampled on five successive days.

Intracellular pH and Electrolyte Metabolism in Chronic Stable Hypercapnia

Intracellular pH of whole body and erythrocytes was measured in patients with moderate chronic stable hypercapnia caused by chronic obstructive lung disease. These values were not significantly different from those of normal subjects or from normal values reported in the literature. Unlike acute hypercapnia, mean whole body intracellular pH values were maintained in a normal range despite arterial pH values which varied between 7.27 and 7.46. The percentage of total body water was not significantly different between hypercapnics and normal subjects. However, extracellular water level was higher and intracellular water level was lower. Although plasma chloride concentration [CI-] was significantly lower in hypercapnics than in normal subjects, total body chlorides per kilogram body weight was not significantly different between the groups. Plasma, muscle, and red blood cell sodium and potassium levels did not differ significantly between the hypercapnics and the normal group. The precise significance of the changes in acid-base

Mediated transport of chloride from blood into cerebrospinal fluid.

The kinetics of transport of chloride from blood into CSF have been studied in the adult cat in vivo for a wide range of concentrations of chloride in arterial plasma: 1. In studies employing isosmotic replacement of body chloride with isethionate by means of extracorporeal hemodialysis, the chloride content in cerebral cortex and corpus callosum and concentration in CSF were relatively resistant to change despite the fact that plasma chloride was varied over the range 120.5 to 8.1 mM. 2. During hemodialysis the ratio of the concentration of chloride in CSF (or content in cerebral cortex) versus the concentration of chloride in arterial plasma was maintained for at least 1 or 2 h at as much as 10 times the ratios present in normal animals. 3. In studies with 36Cl, the rate of entry of chloride from blood into CSF followed Michaelis-Menten kinetics with the Vmax=0.55 μmole/ ml/min and with the Km < 60 mM and possibly < 8.1 mM. On the other hand the rate of entry of chloride from blood into cerebral cortex and corpus callosum was much slower and followed simple diffusion kinetics. 4. Evidence is presented indicating that chloride is transported from blood to CSP at the choroid plexus as well as at other sites. 5. On the basis of the rate of entry of chloride into CSF, the rate of bulk production of CSF in the adult cat was calculated to be 17.1 μl/min at normal plasma concentrations of chloride, a value in close agreement with previous estimates of the rate of production of CSF in the adult cat. 6. The relationships of the content of chloride in skeletal muscle and in liver to the concentration of chloride in plasma are presented, when the latter is varied over the range 120.5 to 8.1 mM.

Salt and water balance in the West African fresh-water/land crab Sudanonautes africanusafricanus and the effects of desiccation

1. 1. Values are given for the water and inorganic ion content of plasma, muscle, whole animal, egg and whole newly hatched crab, for the normal and dehydrated West African fresh-water/land crab Sudanonautes. 2. 2. The results for the adult crab are compared with those of other decapods and their significance with respect to land and fresh-water adaption discussed. 3. 3. On mild desiccation (approximately 15 per cent of original body water lost) muscle loses a much smaller fraction of its water than does the whole animal. There is a large increase in the plasma concentrations of chloride, calcium and potassium, but plasma sodium is maintained near the original level. 4. 4. On severe desiccation (approximately 24 per cent of original body water lost) water is lost in increasing proportion from muscle tissue, there is no significant change in plasma chloride, calcium and potassium, but there is a large increase in sodium concentration bringing the overall increase in sodium to within the range of the other ions. 5. 5. The results appear to support the hypothesis that Sudanonautes invaded fresh water and the land directly from the shore, rather than via the estuaries.

Metabolic studies, aldosterone secretion rate, and plasma renin after carbenoxolone sodium.

A formal metabolic study of carbenoxolone sodium (Biogastrone) 300 mg./day has been performed for 17 days on a woman with gastric ulcer who in a previous 21-day trial, on a 52-mEq sodium diet, showed weight gain, retention, and rise in plasma sodium and chloride concentrations, as well as hypokalaemia without change in potassium balance. In the present trial sodium intake was restricted to 26 mEq/day; while plasma electrolyte changes of lesser degree still occurred, there was no retention of water, sodium, or chloride. Aldosterone secretion in the control period was 202 mug./24 hours, and fell to 74 mug./24 hours after carbenoxolone, but plasma renin was unchanged.These results suggest that the mineralocorticoid effects of carbenoxolone (and presumably of liquorice and its other derivatives) are due to an intrinsic aldosterone-like action, and that, with sodium deprivation, aldosterone secretion is suppressed by a mechanism which is not renin-mediated-possibly hypokalaemia.

Correction of metabolic alkalosis by the kidney after isomertric expansion of extracellular fluid.

Metabolic alkalosis was induced in dogs by administering ethacrynic acid and sustained by feeding a chloride-deficient diet. At the height of the alkalosis extracellular fluid was expanded "isometrically," i.e., with an infusion that duplicated plasma sodium, chloride, and bicarbonate concentrations. Correction of metabolic alkalosis promptly followed such expansion and was attributed to the selective retention by the kidneys of chloride from the administered solution. Since plasma chloride concentration was not increased as an immediate consequence of the infusion, it is concluded that the change in renal tubular function that led to the selective retention of chloride must have been mediated by factors independent of filtrate chloride concentration.A decrease in circulating mineralocorticoid level, as a consequence of volume expansion, does not seem to account for this change in tubular function since identical studies in dogs receiving excessive amounts of 11-deoxycorticosterone acetate during the day of infusion yielded similar findings. Moreover, no other consequence of volume expansion appears to be sufficient to cause this change in tubular function in the absence of metabolic alkalosis; when the alkalosis was corrected with hydrochloric acid before infusion, isometric expansion of extracellular volume did not induce selective chloride retention. We suggest that isometric expansion during metabolic alkalosis causes a decrease in proximal sodium reabsorption that relinquishes filtrate to a more distal site in the nephron and that this site may retain chloride preferentially when hypochloremia or chloride deficiency is present.

Studies on hypertension. 2. Influence of acid-base imbalance on the distribution of electrolytes and its relationship to hemodynamics

In a previous paper the author reported that the acid-base equilibrium plays an important role in the mechanism of hemodynamics in hypertension. It was concluded that in metabolic acidosis systolic and diastolic blood pressures did not show any change, but total peripheral resistance elevated moderately, while in metabolic alkalosis systolic and diastolic blood pressures indicated a significant decrease in normotensive and hypertensive subjects. From the point of the electrolyte distribution of plasma and red cells it seems to be important to elucidate the mechanism of the changes of hemodynamics in hypertension induced by the acid-base equilibrium. In this report, therefore, the author has attempted to determine the influences of metabolic acidosis on the electrolyte distributions in plasma and red cells and investigate their relationships to the hemodynamics in normotensive and hypertensive subjec〓s. Materials and Methods The study was done on 33 subjects, of whom 16 were normotensives and 17 had apparent essential hypertension without evidences of cardiac or renal failures. Three hundred ml of 0.01 N hydrochloric acid solution was infused intravenously to induce metabolic acidosis and one hundred and fifty ml of 7 per cent bicarbonate solution to induce metabolic alkalosis. Sodium, potassium, chloride and bicarbonate concentrations in plasma, and sodium and potassium concentrations in the red blood cells were measured before and after the infusion. The red blood cells were separated by centrifugation at 3, 600 g for 30 minutes. Results Serial electrolyte changes in metabolic acidosis and their relationship to hemodynamics : Arterial blood pH fell after the intravenous infusion of 0.01 N hydrochloric acid in normotensive and hypertensive subjects. Sodium concentration in plasma decreased slightly in both groups after the influsion. Potassium concentration rose in normotensives and conversely fell in hypertensives, but the differences between them were not significant. Plasma concentration of chloride did not change after the infusion in normotensives while it was elevated insignificantly in hypertensives. Bi-carbonate concentration rose in both groups, but a statistical significance was noted only in the hypertensive group. Since sodium concentration in red blood cells slightly decreased in both groups of patients, the ratio of plasma sodium to sodium in red blood cells, Nae/Nai, increased insignificantly. Potassium concentration in the red blood cells increased slightly in both groups and the ratio of plasma potassium to potassium in red blood cells, Ki/Ke, had no remarkable change in the normotensive group but showed a mild increase in the hypertensive groups. Interestingly there was a close relationship between changes in systolic blood pressure and/or total peripheral resistance and Ki/Ke in the hypertensive group.

Influence of Carbon Dioxide Inhalation on Renal Circulation and Electrolyte Metabolism

Kidney plays an important role to regulate, so-called "milieu interne" In the body. The purpose of this study is to investigate the change of electrolyte metabolism and renal circulation in state of respiratory acidosis induced by carbon dioxide inhalation. Material and Method Thirteen subjects with renal disease, the subjects with essential hypertension and six hospitalized normal subjects were observed for the study. Renal vein catheterization was performed. Arterial blood and renal venous blood were obtained from brachial artery and renal vein, before and during inhalation of 5% CO2 for 30 minutes. And plasma sodium, potassium, chloride and bicarbonate concentrations were determined respectively. Renal vascular resistance (RVR), renal vein pressure (RVP), renal plasma flow (RPF), renal blood flow (RBF), glomerular filtration rate (GFR), and filtration fraction (FF) were measured before and during CO2 inhalation. Results Carbon dioxide partial pressure (PCO2) was increased and pH was decreased by 5% CO2 inhalation both in arterial blood and renal venous blood in all subjects. Concentration of sodium, potassium and chloride of arterial blood and renal venous blood remained almost unchanged during CO2 inhalation in all subjects. On the other hand bicarbonate concentration increased in both arterial and venous blood. Renal arterio-venous concentration difference of sodium (a-v Na-diff.) was decreased by CO2 inhalation in the subjects with renal disease. A-v differences of potassium concentration (a-v K-diff.) and chloride (a-v Cl-diff.) had a tendency to decrease by CO2 inhalation in the subjects with advanced renal disease. A-v difference of bicarbonate concenration (a-v HCO-3-diff.) had a tendency to increase by CO2 inhalation in the subjects with advanced renal disease.

Variations in Calf Plasma Composition with Age

SUMMARY Plasma composition was investigated in calves whose ages ranged from a few hours after birth to 22 days. Significant variations with age were observed in plasma sodium, chloride, potassium and protein concentrations. Haematocrit and plasma osmolality did not vary significantly.