Planetary Boundary Layer Structure Research Articles

Evaluation of the Weather Research and Forecasting Model in the Durance Valley Complex Terrain during the KASCADE Field Campaign

AbstractIn the winter of 2012/13, the Katabatic Winds and Stability over Cadarache for the Dispersion of Effluents (KASCADE) observational campaign was carried out in southeastern France to characterize the wind and thermodynamic structure of the (stable) planetary boundary layer (PBL). Data were collected with two micrometeorological towers, a sodar, a tethered balloon, and radiosoundings. Here, this dataset is used to evaluate the representation of the boundary layer in the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) Model. In general, it is found that diurnal temperature range (DTR) is largely underestimated, there is a strong negative bias in both longwave radiation components, and evapotranspiration is overestimated. An illustrative case is subjected to a thorough model-physics evaluation. First, five PBL parameterization schemes and two land surface schemes are employed. A marginal sensitivity to PBL parameterization is found, and the sophisticated Noah land surface model represents the extremes in skin temperature better than does a more simple thermal diffusion scheme. In a second stage, sensitivity tests for land surface–atmosphere coupling (through parameterization of z0h/z0m), initial soil moisture content, and radiation parameterization were performed. Relatively strong surface coupling and low soil moisture content result in a larger sensible heat flux, deeper PBL, and larger DTR. The larger sensible heat flux is not supported by the observations, however. It turns out that, for the selected case, a combination of subsidence and warm-air advection is not accurately simulated, but this inaccuracy cannot fully explain the discrepancies found in the WRF simulations. The results of the sensitivity analysis reiterate the important role of initial soil moisture values.

Statistical Analysis of Relationship between Daytime Lidar-Derived Planetary Boundary Layer Height and Relevant Atmospheric Variables in the Semiarid Region in Northwest China

Accurate identification of key parameters for data assimilation is important in simulating the planetary boundary layer height (PBLH) and structure evolution in numerical weather prediction models. In this study, surface observational data and lidar-derived PBLH on 42 cloudless days from June 2007 to May 2008 are used to quantify the statistical relationships between surface parameters and the PBLH at a semiarid climate observational site in Northwest China. The results indicate that surface upward long wave radiation, surface temperature, and surface sensible heat fluxes show strong correlations with the PBLH with correlation coefficients at a range of 0.63–0.72. But these parameters show varying correlation response time to the different stages of PBL development. Furthermore, the air temperature shows the highest correlation with the PBLH near the surface and the correlation decreases with increasing height.

Performance Evaluation of PBL Schemes of ARW Model in Simulating Thermo-Dynamical Structure of Pre-Monsoon Convective Episodes over Kharagpur Using STORM Data Sets

In the present study, advanced research WRF (ARW) model is employed to simulate convective thunderstorm episodes over Kharagpur (22°30′N, 87°20′E) region of Gangetic West Bengal, India. High-resolution simulations are conducted using 1 × 1 degree NCEP final analysis meteorological fields for initial and boundary conditions for events. The performance of two non-local [Yonsei University (YSU), Asymmetric Convective Model version 2 (ACM2)] and two local turbulence kinetic energy closures [Mellor–Yamada–Janjic (MYJ), Bougeault–Lacarrere (BouLac)] are evaluated in simulating planetary boundary layer (PBL) parameters and thermodynamic structure of the atmosphere. The model-simulated parameters are validated with available in situ meteorological observations obtained from micro-meteorological tower as well has high-resolution DigiCORA radiosonde ascents during STORM-2007 field experiment at the study location and Doppler Weather Radar (DWR) imageries. It has been found that the PBL structure simulated with the TKE closures MYJ and BouLac are in better agreement with observations than the non-local closures. The model simulations with these schemes also captured the reflectivity, surface pressure patterns such as wake-low, meso-high, pre-squall low and the convective updrafts and downdrafts reasonably well. Qualitative and quantitative comparisons reveal that the MYJ followed by BouLac schemes better simulated various features of the thunderstorm events over Kharagpur region. The better performance of MYJ followed by BouLac is evident in the lesser mean bias, mean absolute error, root mean square error and good correlation coefficient for various surface meteorological variables as well as thermo-dynamical structure of the atmosphere relative to other PBL schemes. The better performance of the TKE closures may be attributed to their higher mixing efficiency, larger convective energy and better simulation of humidity promoting moist convection relative to non-local schemes.

Assessment of Planetary Boundary-Layer Schemes in the Weather Research and Forecasting Mesoscale Model Using MATERHORN Field Data

The study was aimed at understanding the deficiencies of numerical mesoscale models by comparing predictions with a new high-resolution meteorological dataset collected during the Mountain Terrain Atmospheric Modelling and Observations (MATERHORN) Program. The simulations focussed on the stable boundary layer (SBL), the predictions of which continue to be challenging. High resolution numerical simulations (0.5-km horizontal grid size) were conducted to investigate the efficacy of six planetary boundary-layer (PBL) parametrizations available in the advanced research version of the Weather Research and Forecasting model. One of the commonly used PBL schemes was modified to include eddy diffusivities that account for enhanced momentum transport compared to heat transport in the SBL, representing internal wave dynamics. All of the tested PBL schemes, including the modified scheme, showed a positive surface temperature bias. None of the PBL schemes was found to be superior in predicting the vertical wind and temperature profiles over the lowest 500 m, however two of the schemes appeared superior in capturing the lower PBL structure. The lowest model layers appear to have a significant impact on the predictions aloft. Regions of sporadic flow interactions delineated by the MATERHORN observations were poorly predicted, given such interactions are not represented in typical PBL schemes.

Numerical study of the effects of Planetary Boundary Layer structure on the pollutant dispersion within built-up areas

The effects of different Planetary Boundary Layer (PBL) structures on pollutant dispersion processes within two idealized street canyon configurations and a realistic urban area were numerically examined by a Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) model. The boundary conditions of different PBL structures/conditions were provided by simulations of the Weather Researching and Forecasting model. The simulated results of the idealized 2D and 3D street canyon experiments showed that the increment of PBL instability favored the downward transport of momentum from the upper flow above the roof to the pedestrian level within the street canyon. As a result, the flow and turbulent fields within the street canyon under the more unstable PBL condition are stronger. Therefore, more pollutants within the street canyon would be removed by the stronger advection and turbulent diffusion processes under the unstable PBL condition. On the contrary, more pollutants would be concentrated in the street canyon under the stable PBL condition. In addition, the simulations of the realistic building cluster experiments showed that the density of buildings was a crucial factor determining the dynamic effects of the PBL structure on the flow patterns. The momentum field within a denser building configuration was mostly transported from the upper flow, and was more sensitive to the PBL structures than that of the sparser building configuration. Finally, it was recommended to use the Mellor–Yamada–Nakanishi–Niino (MYNN) PBL scheme, which can explicitly output the needed turbulent variables, to provide the boundary conditions to the CFD simulation.

Mesoscale atmospheric flow-field simulations for air quality modeling over complex terrain region of Ranchi in eastern India using WRF

In the present study mesoscale meteorological flow and planetary boundary layer (PBL) parameters over the complex topographic region of Jharkhand state of tropical India are simulated using high resolution Advanced Research WRF (ARW) mesoscale model to study their role in the air pollution dispersion characteristics using a Lagrangian Particle Dispersion Model (FLEXPART). Eight fair weather days in different seasons (winter, pre-monsoon, monsoon, and post-monsoon) are chosen. Sensitivity experiments are conducted with two non-local [Yonsei University (YSU), Asymmetric Convective Model version 2 (ACM2)] and three local turbulence kinetic energy (TKE) closure [Mellor- Yamada Nakanishi and Niino Level 2.5 PBL (MYNN2), Mellor-Yamada-Janjic (MYJ), and quasi-normal scale elimination (QNSE)] PBL parameterisations to study the evolution of PBL parameters and thermodynamic structure. Simulated parameters are validated with available in situ meteorological observations at three stations in the study region. Results indicate that the low-level flow field is highly influenced by the topography and widely varies in different seasons. Simulated vertical PBL structure varied across seasons with shallow boundary layers (1–1.7 km) during winter, monsoon and post-monsoon seasons, deep mixed layers (2–2.7 km) in pre-monsoon season. Simulations in various seasons revealed that ACM2 followed by MYNN2 and YSU reproduced various PBL features such as topographic flows, surface layer fluxes, meteorological variables and the thermo-dynamical structure reasonably well indicating the suitability of the above PBL schemes for air quality simulations over the region. This is corroborated with the error statistics as well. Simulations with FLEXPART using ARW derived meteorology revealed higher dilution potential of the atmosphere in monsoon and pre-monsoon compared to post monsoon and winter seasons over the region. Results also indicate the ACM2, MYNN2 and YSU produce relatively larger dispersion than the QNSE and MYJ.

On the complexity of the boundary layer structure and aerosol vertical distribution in the coastal Mediterranean regions: a case study

The planetary boundary layer structure in the coastal areas, and particularly in complex orography regions such as the Mediterranean, is extremely intricate. In this study, we show the evolution of the planetary boundary layer based on in situ airborne measurements and ground-based remote sensing observations carried out during the MORE (Marine Ozone and Radiation Experiment) campaign in June 2010. The campaign was held in a rural coastal Mediterranean region in Southern Italy. The study focuses on the observations made on 17 June. Vertical profiles of meteorological parameters and aerosol size distribution were measured during two flights: in the morning and in the afternoon. Airborne observations were combined with ground-based LIDAR, SODAR, microwave and visible radiometer measurements, allowing a detailed description of the atmospheric vertical structure. The analysis was complemented with data from a regional atmospheric model run with horizontal resolutions of 12, 4 and 1 km, respectively; back-trajectories were calculated at these spatial resolutions. The observations show the simultaneous occurrence of dust transport, descent of mid-tropospheric air and sea breeze circulation on 17 June. Local pollution effects on the aerosol distribution, and a possible event of new particles formation were also observed. A large variability in the thermodynamical structure and aerosol distribution in the flight region, extending by approximately 30 km along the coast, was found. Within this complex, environment-relevant differences in the back-trajectories calculated at different spatial resolutions are found, suggesting that the description of several dynamical processes, and in particular the sea breeze circulation, requires high-resolution meteorological analyses. The study also shows that the integration of different observational techniques is needed to describe these complex conditions; in particular, the availability of flights and their timing with respect to the occurring phenomena are crucial.

An Evaluation of the Mellor-Yamada-Janjić Formulation Parameters for the QNSE Scheme in the WRF Model over the Lower Yangtze River Valley

Accurate description of boundary layer processes is important for numerical simulations, and some model parameters in the boundary layer schemes play an important role in the model simulations. The Quasi-Normal Scale Elimination (QNSE) scheme in the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model version 3.1.1 reverts into the Mellor-Yamada-Janjic (MYJ) model under unstable and neutral conditions. The parameters (A_1, A_2, B_1, B_2, C_1) that affect the turbulent mixing in the MYJ formulation are the proportional coefficients of turbulence length scales and the master turbulence length scale. This study examines the model simulations sensitivity to different MYJ parameters. The simulation results show that MYJ parameters play a significant role in rainfall simulations. The analysis results imply that the parameters may affect the rainfall mainly by changing turbulent mixing and coupling with other physical process, such as cumulus convection processes, and then changing heat, momentum, and moisture transfer. The previous parameters used in the original MYJ formulation are not always the best and none of the parameters are always the best. It may be more appropriate that the parameters should be adopted in their plausible physical bounds depending on the planetary boundary layer (PBL) structures characteristics under specific meteorological and geographical circumstances.

Numerical simulation of air convection in the atmosphere during the invasion of cold air over the Black Sea

The structure of a convective-mechanical planetary boundary layer (PBL) in the atmosphere over the Black Sea in the event of the invasion of cold air has been investigated using a WRF-ARW numerical model of regional atmospheric circulation. The features of the development of the convective PBL, typical of the quasi-stationary (but significantly heterogeneous in space) development of convection have been distinguished. Based on a series of test calculations, a numerical model assuming convective motions in the PBL has been chosen to study the small-scale structure of the PBL. Calculated horizontal scales of convective motions with cloud images from satellites have been compared. The vertical structure of convective motions has been investigated and the essential asymmetry in convective motions has been revealed. Vertical profiles of the velocity field components, as well as components of vertical heat fluxes, have been estimated. In addition, values of the separate components of the kinetic-energy balance equation for convective motions (KE) show that the KE is generated due to buoyancy forces and, to a lesser degree, by the mean velocity shift.

Sensitivity of the WRF model to the lower boundary in an extreme precipitation event – Madeira island case study

Abstract. The advances in satellite technology in recent years have made feasible the acquisition of high-resolution information on the Earth's surface. Examples of such information include elevation and land use, which have become more detailed. Including this information in numerical atmospheric models can improve their results in simulating lower boundary forced events, by providing detailed information on their characteristics. Consequently, this work aims to study the sensitivity of the weather research and forecast (WRF) model to different topography as well as land-use simulations in an extreme precipitation event. The test case focused on a topographically driven precipitation event over the island of Madeira, which triggered flash floods and mudslides in the southern parts of the island. Difference fields between simulations were computed, showing that the change in the data sets produced statistically significant changes to the flow, the planetary boundary layer structure and precipitation patterns. Moreover, model results show an improvement in model skill in the windward region for precipitation and in the leeward region for wind, in spite of the non-significant enhancement in the overall results with higher-resolution data sets of topography and land use.

The Dispersion of Silver Iodide Particles from Ground-Based Generators over Complex Terrain. Part II: WRF Large-Eddy Simulations versus Observations

AbstractA numerical modeling study has been conducted to explore the ability of the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model-based large-eddy simulation (LES) with 100-m grid spacing to reproduce silver iodide (AgI) particle dispersion by comparing the model results with measurements made on 16 February 2011 over the Medicine Bow Mountains in Wyoming. Xue et al.'s recently developed AgI cloud-seeding parameterization was applied in this study to simulate AgI release from ground-based generators. Qualitative and quantitative comparisons between the LES results and observed AgI concentrations were conducted. Analyses of turbulent kinetic energy (TKE) features within the planetary boundary layer (PBL) and comparisons between the 100-m LES and simulations with 500-m grid spacing were performed as well. The results showed the following: 1) Despite the moist bias close to the ground and above 4 km AGL, the LES with 100-m grid spacing captured the essential environmental conditions except for a slightly more stable PBL relative to the observed soundings. 2) Wind shear is the dominant TKE production mechanism in wintertime PBL over complex terrain and generates a PBL of about 1000-m depth. The terrain-induced turbulent eddies are primarily responsible for the vertical dispersion of AgI particles. 3) The LES-simulated AgI plumes were shallow and narrow, in agreement with observations. The LES overestimated AgI concentrations close to the ground, which is consistent with the higher static stability in the model than is observed. 4) Non-LES simulations using PBL schemes had difficulty in capturing the shear-dominant turbulent PBL structure over complex terrain in wintertime. Therefore, LES of wintertime orographic clouds with grid spacing close to 500 m or finer are recommended.

Characterization of the planetary boundary layer height and structure by Raman lidar: comparison of different approaches

Abstract. The planetary boundary layer (PBL) includes the portion of the atmosphere which is directly influenced by the presence of the earth's surface. Aerosol particles trapped within the PBL can be used as tracers to study the boundary-layer vertical structure and time variability. As a result of this, elastic backscatter signals collected by lidar systems can be used to determine the height and the internal structure of the PBL. The present analysis considers three different methods to estimate the PBL height. The first method is based on the determination of the first-order derivative of the logarithm of the range-corrected elastic lidar signals. Estimates of the PBL height for specific case studies obtained through this approach are compared with simultaneous estimates from the potential temperature profiles measured by radiosondes launched simultaneously to lidar operation. Additional estimates of the boundary layer height are based on the determination of the first-order derivative of the range-corrected rotational Raman lidar signals. This latter approach results to be successfully applicable also in the afternoon–evening decaying phase of the PBL, when the effectiveness of the approach based on the elastic lidar signals may be compromised or altered by the presence of the residual layer. Results from these different approaches are compared and discussed in the paper, with a specific focus on selected case studies collected by the University of Basilicata Raman lidar system BASIL during the Convective and Orographically-induced Precipitation Study (COPS).

Structure of the planetary boundary layer over Southeast England: Modeling and measurements

The Weather Research and Forecasting model was applied to analyze variations in the planetary boundary layer (PBL) structure over Southeast England including central and suburban London. The parameterizations and predictive skills of two nonlocal mixing PBL schemes, YSU and ACM2, and two local mixing PBL schemes, MYJ and MYNN2, were evaluated over a variety of stability conditions, with model predictions at a 3 km grid spacing. The PBL height predictions, which are critical for scaling turbulence and diffusion in meteorological and air quality models, show significant intra‐scheme variance (> 20%), and the reasons are presented. ACM2 diagnoses the PBL height thermodynamically using the bulk Richardson number method, which leads to a good agreement with the lidar data for both unstable and stable conditions. The modeled vertical profiles in the PBL, such as wind speed, turbulent kinetic energy (TKE), and heat flux, exhibit large spreads across the PBL schemes. The TKE predicted by MYJ were found to be too small and show much less diurnal variation as compared with observations over London. MYNN2 produces better TKE predictions at low levels than MYJ, but its turbulent length scale increases with height in the upper part of the strongly convective PBL, where it should decrease. The local PBL schemes considerably underestimate the entrainment heat fluxes for convective cases. The nonlocal PBL schemes exhibit stronger mixing in the mean wind fields under convective conditions than the local PBL schemes and agree better with large‐eddy simulation (LES) studies.

Characteristics of structure and dynamics of the planetary boundary layer in the “Ocean-Continent” zone. Part II. Summer period

This work contains the results connected with the planetary boundary layer (PBL) structure and dynamics in the “ocean-continent” zone in the summer period restored from the lidar soundings. The characteristic parameters of the PBL and ways of formation of its structure and dynamics are ascertained. On the example of several summer days, specific features of the PBL structure and dynamics of this region are shown. The mean PBL heights, top of the convective layer, mean height of the stable layer, and maximal altitudes of breeze circulation are presented.

A thermal plume model for the Martian convective boundary layer

The Martian planetary boundary layer (PBL) is a crucial component of the Martian climate system. Global climate models (GCMs) and mesoscale models (MMs) lack the resolution to predict PBL mixing which is therefore parameterized. Here we propose to adapt the “thermal plume” model, recently developed for Earth climate modeling, to Martian GCMs, MMs, and single‐column models. The aim of this physically based parameterization is to represent the effect of organized turbulent structures (updrafts and downdrafts) on the daytime PBL transport, as it is resolved in large‐eddy simulations (LESs). We find that the terrestrial thermal plume model needs to be modified to satisfyingly account for deep turbulent plumes found in the Martian convective PBL. Our Martian thermal plume model qualitatively and quantitatively reproduces the thermal structure of the daytime PBL on Mars: superadiabatic near‐surface layer, mixing layer, and overshoot region at PBL top. This model is coupled to surface layer parameterizations taking into account stability and turbulent gustiness to calculate surface‐atmosphere fluxes. Those new parameterizations for the surface and mixed layers are validated against near‐surface lander measurements. Using a thermal plume model moreover enables a first‐order estimation of key turbulent quantities (e.g., PBL height and convective plume velocity) in Martian GCMs and MMs without having to run costly LESs.

Численное моделирование характеристик пограничного слоя атмосферы крупного промышленного города (на примере г. Челябинска)

An applicability of Weather Research Forecasting Model (WRF) with single-layer surface parameterization schema to quantifying urban planetary boundary layer (PBL) structure and evolution is evaluated by comparing model-derived results versus conventional thermal profiler, surface and satellite data obtained in Chelyabinsk metropolitan area during typical winter anticyclon. Influence of detailed description of anthropogenic surface processes and landscape inhomoge neities onto urban heat island patterns is discussed also. WRF relatively well describes the observed vertical PBL structure with temperature inversion in stable surface layer below 150 m, and isothermal well-mixed layer above 300 m, but significantly (more than 40C) underestimates subsidence inversion cape intensity. Experiments reveal that an absolute difference between modeling and observed temperatures monotically decrease with time, and, after 18 hours model runs continuing within ±10C interval at all levels of PBL. Some inertia in evolution of modeled PBL is observedduring sunrise/sunset when rapid temperature change at low levels (less than 150 м) occurs. As was expected for cold weather temperatures below -150C and light winds, model fields are perturbed by presence of pronounced urban heat island (UHI) with two surface temperature anomaly up +2÷40C separated by cold river valley. Simulated 3D windflows suggest that highest temperature maxima in industrial park corresponds to surface divergence region and is produced by descending vertical air motion in contrast to valley convergence induced by horizontal “tunnel effects”. The interaction of UHI and complex terrain induced flows resulting unusually strong low level jet. It is assumed that such jet development produces wind shift. Overall circulations structure can be considered in term of UHI stationary frontal boundary – one of new object to future mesoscale studies

The Vertical Structure of Tropical Urban Heat Island with LES

Abstrac t The Large-eddy simulation (LES) model is used to investigate the influence of the Tropical Urban Heat Island (UHI) in the vert ical structure of the Planetary Boundary Layer (PBL) under adiabatic and non-saturated conditions. An idealized UHI is represented by two-dimensional patches of heat fluxes at the surface defining variable Bowen rat io along the horizontal do main. The results indicated that the heterogeneities are able to induce the format ion of intense updraft over the center of warm patch. Th is buoyant thermal transports the mo isture fro m the lower to the upper part of the PBL and penetrate the entrainment zone. Consequently, the urban-breeze circulat ion can contribute to the clouds development at the top of the PBL over the UHI.

Characteristics of structure and dynamics of the planetary boundary layer in the transitional “ocean-continent” zone. Part 1. Winter period

The results of investigations of the structure and dynamics of the atmospheric planetary boundary layer in the transitional “ocean-continent” zone in the winter period, restored from the remote lidar soundings, are given. The characteristic parameters of PBL are ascertained, as well as ways of formation of its structure and dynamics. The distinctive features of PBL for a given region are shown by the examples of December 13 and 14, 2011. The mean PBL height, upper boundary of the convective layer, and the mean height of the stable layer in January and February are presented. The fact is grounded that the well-developed convection observed at nighttime is caused by existence of a low-level jet stream and high cooling altitudes of the planetary boundary layer.

Evolution of planetary boundary layer under different weather conditions, and its impact on aerosol concentrations

A field experiment was conducted in Tianjin, China from September 9–30, 2010, focused on the evolution of Planetary Boundary Layer (PBL) and its impact on surface air pollutants. The experiment used three remote sensing instruments, wind profile radar (WPR), microwave radiometer (MWR) and micro-pulse lidar (MPL), to detect the vertical profiles of winds, temperature, and aerosol backscattering coefficient and to measure the vertical profiles of surface pollutants (aerosol, CO, SO2, NOx), and also collected sonic anemometers data from a 255-m meteorological tower. Based on these measurements, the evolution of the PBL was estimated. The averaged PBL height was about 1000–1300m during noon/afternoon-time, and 200–300m during night-time. The PBL height and the aerosol concentrations were anti-correlated during clear and haze conditions. The averaged maximum PBL heights were 1.08 and 1.70km while the averaged aerosol concentrations were 52 and 17μg/m3 under haze and clear sky conditions, respectively. The influence of aerosols and clouds on solar radiation was observed based on sonic anemometers data collected from the 255-m meteorological tower. The heat flux was found significantly decreased by haze (heavy pollution) or cloud, which tended to depress the development of PBL, while the repressed structure of PBL further weakened the diffusion of pollutants, leading to heavy pollution. This possible positive feedback cycle (more aerosols→lower PBL height→more aerosols) would induce an acceleration process for heavy ground pollution in megacities.

Evaluation of nonlocal and local planetary boundary layer schemes in the WRF model

A realistic reproduction of planetary boundary layer (PBL) structure and its evolution is critical to numerical simulation of regional meteorology and air quality. Conversely, insufficient realism in the simulated physical properties often leads to degraded meteorological and air quality prognostic skills. This study employed the Weather Research and Forecasting model (WRF) to evaluate model performance and to quantify meteorological prediction differences produced by four widely used PBL schemes. Evaluated were two nonlocal PBL schemes, YSU and ACM2, and two local PBL schemes, MYJ and Boulac. The model grid comprised four nested domains at horizontal resolutions of 27 km, 9 km, 3 km and 1 km respectively. Simulated surface variables 2 m temperature and 10 m wind at 1 km resolution were compared to measurements collected in Hong Kong. A detailed analysis of land‐atmosphere energy balance explicates heat flux and temperature variability among the PBL schemes. Differences in vertical profiles of horizontal velocity, potential temperature, bulk Richardson number and water vapor mixing ratio were examined. Diagnosed PBL heights, estimated by scheme specific formulations, exhibited the large intrascheme variance. To eliminate formulation dependence in PBL height estimation, lidar measurements and a unified diagnosis were jointly used to reanalyze PBL heights. The diagnosis showed that local PBL schemes produced shallower PBL heights than those of nonlocal PBL schemes. It is reasonable to infer that WRF, coupled with the ACM2 PBL physics option can be a viable producer of meteorological forcing to regional air quality modeling in the Pearl River Delta (PRD) Region.