ABSTRACT Indigenous to West Africa, akuamma seed (Picralima nitida) is used in traditional medicine and demonstrates opioidergic activity. Little is known about its role in management of pain or other ailments among people in the United States. This study presents findings from a web-based survey conducted between December 2023 and July 2024. Summary statistics characterized individuals reporting lifetime akuamma seed use, including demographics, substance use history, pain severity, and motivations. Between-group comparisons were conducted for those with and without lifetime akuamma seed use. Among 369 participants, 28 (7.6%) reported lifetime akuamma seed use. Those with lifetime akuamma seed use were older (44.7 years, p = .04), females (64.3%, p = .004), or currently disabled (32.1%, p < .001). They reported less alcohol (p = .033), more kava (78.6%, p = .001) and Delta-8 THC (71.4%, p < .001) use; all had tried kratom. Those who had tried akuamma seed indicated greater pain severity and reported use for pain management and opioid substitution; 60.7% reported pain relief from akuamma seed. No participants met DSM-5 criteria for akuamma seed–related substance use disorder modified. Akuamma seed may be used in the United States alongside other unscheduled psychoactive substances, particularly, psychoactive botanical-derived products. Additional research is needed to evaluate safety, efficacy, and health outcomes associated with akuamma seed.

This study investigated the in vitro α-amylase and α-glucosidase inhibitory activities of the n-hexane and chloroform fractions of Picralima nitida ethanol leaf extract, comparing them with acarbose, a standard antidiabetic drug. The assays were conducted at concentrations of 5, 10, 50, and 100 mg/mL to determine the dose-dependent inhibitory potential of each fraction. Results revealed that the n-hexane fraction exhibited a progressive, concentration-dependent inhibition of α-amylase activity, increasing from 47.88% at 5 mg/mL to 69.04% at 100 mg/mL. In contrast, the chloroform fraction displayed a non-linear pattern with inhibition ranging from 46.11% to 54.36%. Acarbose maintained consistently higher inhibition values (79.38–84.79%) across all concentrations. Similarly, α-glucosidase inhibition increased with concentration for both fractions, with the n-hexane fraction rising from 39.89% to 59.64% and the chloroform fraction showing a variable but moderate activity (56.55–64.04%). Acarbose again showed superior inhibition (78.46–82.30%) at all concentrations. The observed inhibitory effects suggest that P. nitida fractions possess bioactive constituents capable of modulating carbohydrate-hydrolysing enzymes in a dose-dependent manner. Although less potent than acarbose, the fractions demonstrate promising therapeutic potential for managing postprandial hyperglycemia.

Aim: The aim of this study was to evaluate the anti-inflammatory effect of Picralima nitida (Apocynaceae) seeds, a plant widely used in traditional African medicine for the treatment of various pathologies. Methods: The aqueous extract of Picralima nitida seeds (EAPn) obtained by the decoction method was used for toxicological, photochemical and pharmacological tests. The acute oral toxicity study was carried out by administering 1 ml of a single dose of 300, 2000 and 5000 mg/kg body weight of EAPn to three batches of mice, in accordance with the guidelines of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Qualitative phytochemical screening was carried out in accordance with the techniques described in the work of Emina et al. Using the method of Winter et al., the anti-inflammatory activity of EAPn was tested using 24 wistar rats. Edema was induced by injection of 1% carrageenan under the plantar pad of the rats' right hind leg. 300 mg/kg BW. of EAPn and 10 mg/kg BW. of indomethacin (INDOCID) were administered by gavage to the test batches, while the control batch received distilled water. Results: In the presence of EAPn and indomethacin, treated batches showed a significant (p &lt; 0.05) decrease in mean paw edema compared with the control group from 1st to 6th hour. At 4ᵉ hours, inflammation inhibition rates were 94.5 ± 0.33% and 78 ± 1% (p &lt; 0.001) respectively for indomethacin and EAPn. EAPn thus showed anti-inflammatory effects similar to those of indomethacin. Oral administration of EAPn at a single high dose of 5000 mg/kg BW produced no mortality in mice during the 14-day observation period. We deduce that the lethal dose of EAPn is greater than 5000 mg/kg BW. The extract is therefore considered non-toxic by the oral route. Qualitative phytochemical screening of the aqueous extract revealed the presence of several chemical groups with therapeutic potential, including flavonoids, saponosides, alkaloids and tannins. Conclusion: the chemical groups present in EAPn could be responsible for the anti-inflammatory effects observed. This study offers an accessible and sustainable alternative for the management of inflammatory diseases.

Biotransformation of the secondary metabolites from Picralima nitida and their antibacterial activities

Comprehensive pharmacokinetics and ADME evaluation of Akuamma alkaloids.

The toxicological study of Picralima nitida (Fabaceae) involved determining the acute toxicity of an aqueous extract of the plant's fruit on mice. This study was carried out by gavage (oral) and intraperitoneally, and enabled us to observe the symptomatic behaviour of single doses of this extract administered to mice and to determine toxicological parameter such as the 50% lethal dose (LD50, the dose that kills 50% of the experimental animals) with the 95% confidence limit. Acute toxicity results show that the aqueous fruit extract of Picralima nitida (EAPn) is non-toxic by gavage (LD50 &gt;5000 mg/kg Body Weight). By the intraperitoneal route, this extract has an LD50 = 1166.6 mg/kg Body Weight. According to Diezi's classification, EAPn is of little or low intraperitoneal toxicity in rats. The oral route is therefore recommended for the administration of this plant.

Abstract Background: Caspase-1 and CYP11A1 genes play crucial roles in inflammation and steroid hormone biosynthesis, both of which might be implicated in the toxic effects of benzene on the blood. Picralima nitida and Cymbopogon citratus, with their known medicinal qualities, contain bioactive compounds that may influence cellular pathways, decrease oxidative stress, and improve blood cell production. Objectives: This study investigated the effects of a combined aqueous leaf extract of these two plants on caspase-1 and CYP11A1 gene expression in benzene-induced blood toxicity in Wistar rats. Materials and Methods: Sixty male rats were divided into six groups: control, benzene exposure, cyclophosphamide treatment, and three groups receiving benzene with different doses (100, 200, and 400 mg/kg) of the combined plant extract. Caspase-1 and CYP11A1 mRNA levels were measured using polymerase chain reaction, and the data were analyzed with GraphPad Prism. Results: Groups treated with benzene, cyclophosphamide, and the 100 mg/kg and 200 mg/kg extract doses had significantly higher caspase-1 expression compared to the control group (P &lt; 0.05). Similarly, groups exposed to benzene, cyclophosphamide, and the 200 mg/kg and 400 mg/kg extract doses showed significantly higher CYP11A1 expression compared to the control (P &lt; 0.05). Conclusion: The mRNA expression of both caspase-1 and CYP11A1 was significantly altered by benzene, cyclophosphamide, and the plant extract.

IntroductionConventional treatments, such as non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), are widely used for the treatment of dysmenorrhea but are often associated with side effects, necessitating the search for alternative therapies. This study investigates the antioxidant and hormonal effects of selected Nigerian medicinal plants—Aristolochia littoralis, Picralima nitida, Sorghum bicolor, Spondias mombin, and Xylopia aethiopica—traditionally used for dysmenorrhea management.MethodsPhytochemical screening was carried out to confirm the presence of bioactive compounds such as flavonoids, alkaloids, tannins, and phenolic acids. Antioxidant assays, including DPPH, FRAP, and nitric oxide scavenging assays, were conducted to evaluate the free radical scavenging activities of the plant extracts. Additionally, an in vivo study was performed using female Wistar rats to assess the effects of the extracts on key reproductive hormones—luteinizing hormone (LH), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), and estradiol (E2)—as well as lipid profiles, including total cholesterol (TC), triglycerides (TG), and high-density lipoprotein (HDL-C).Results and discussionSignificant antioxidant activity of S. bicolor is 69.55 ± 6.96% DPPH inhibition at 1,000 μg/mL. The FRAP assay showed a strong reducing capacity in X. aethiopica is 4.71 ± 0.14 mg/mL. In the NO scavenging assay, P. nitida (186.88 ± 0.78 μM) and S. fistula (190.91 ± 4.38 μM) displayed notable activity. All examined plant extracts have increased estradiol levels significantly compared to the untreated group. Lipid profile analysis showed improved cardiovascular markers, with A. littoralis exhibiting the highest HDL/LDL ratio (1.394 ± 0.014) and X. aethiopica showing the lowest total cholesterol levels (2.276 ± 0.129 mmol/L). The GSH assay further presented S. mombin as having the highest GSH concentration (0.190 ± 0.034 mM), indicating enhanced antioxidant defense. The most active plants regarding the evaluated parameters were S. mombin, S. bicolor, A. littoralis, and X. aethiopica, based on antioxidant, hormonal, and lipid profile assays. These results provide strong pharmacological support for their traditional use in dysmenorrhea management and suggest that they could be valuable in developing plant-based therapies. Future studies should assess additional oxidative markers, explore long-term treatment effects, and work toward the standardization of these medicinal extracts as supplementary therapy for cancers in premenopausal women.

Picralima nitida and Cymbopogon citratus are known for their medicinal properties, including anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antioxidant, and haematopoietic effects, and are commonly used in various therapeutic applications. This study aimed to evaluate the protective effect of an herbal mixture extract on Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor (AHR) and NADPH Quinone Oxidoreductase 1 (NQO1) expression in benzene-induced blood toxicity in Wistar rats. Sixty male adult Wistar rats were divided into six groups: control (A), benzene-only (B), benzene + cyclophosphamide (C), benzene + 100mg/kg of the bi-herbal formulation (D), benzene + 200mg/kg of the bi-herbal formulation (E), and benzene + 400mg/kg of the bi-herbal formulation (F). The mRNA expression of AHR and NQO1 was assessed using polymerase chain reaction. The analysis, conducted with GraphPad Prism software, revealed a significant increase in AHR mRNA expression in group C compared to groups A and B (P&lt;0.05). Additionally, group D showed significantly lower expression of AHR when compared to group C. For NQO1, a similar finding was observed with group C having higher mRNA expression compared to groups A and B (P&lt;0.05). Overall, the findings indicate that benzene exposure reduced the expression of AHR and NQO1, while the herbal formulation of Picralima nitida and Cymbopogon citratus was effective in reversing these effects.

The residual effects and microbial resistance associated with the use of synthetic drugs in animal bodies necessitate the use of phytoadditives as organic-based medications in poultry diets. An organic alternative is Picralima nitida with promising antimicrobial, hypoglycemic, and hypolipidemic activities that could possibly improve poultry health. This study, therefore, evaluated the response of broiler chickens to Picralima nitida Seed Powder (PnSP) using 300 day-old Arbor Acre (AA) broiler chicks. They were allotted to five dietary treatments with 6 replicates each and were fed 0, 0.05, 0.1, 0.15, and 0.2% PnSP-based starter (21 days) and finisher (28 days) diets in a Completely Randomised Design (CRD). Cooking Loss (CL), Crude Protein (CP), Ether Extract (EE), and sensory attributes of the meat were determined. For blood profile, Glycemic Index (GI), globulin, glucose, creatinine, Alkaline Phosphatase (ALP), Packed Cell Volume (PCV), and Red Blood Cell (RBC) were determined. Data collected were subjected to One-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) at p &lt; 0.05%. No significant (p = 0.47) effect on GI; however, the values reduced with an increase in PnSP. CL (p &lt; 0.001), CP (p &lt; 0.001), and EE (p = 0.04) were significantly influenced in a non-definite pattern, and the sensory attributes of the boiled meat were (p &gt; 0.05) influenced by PnSP. Globulin (p = 0.01), glucose (p = 0.01), and ALT (p &lt; 0.001) increased with the use of PnSP, while creatinine (p = 0.03) decreased with an increase in PnSP. However, ALP was (p &lt; 0.001) influenced in a non-definite pattern. In conclusion, 0.1% PnSP improved globulin, glucose, PCV, RBC, and reduced the creatinine level of broiler chickens.

The germination and conservation of endangered and under-documented plant species in Nigeria are hindered by several practical challenges, particularly during the seedling and early developmental stages. Most of these species exhibit low germination percentages and weak seedling vigor when cultivated outside their native ecosystems. This difficulty is compounded by limited ecological and physiological data, especially on dormancy behavior and moisture sensitivity. Given the mounting pressures from deforestation, unsustainable harvesting, and habitat degradation, improving early-stage propagation has become a critical component of effective plant conservation strategies. This study tested nine species under standardized nursery conditions to assess germination success and early growth performance. These included six endangered species: Allanblackia floribunda, Picralima nitida, Pterocarpus santalinoides, Buchholzia coriacea, Xylopia aethiopica, and Lophira alata, and three widely cultivated reference species: Terminalia catappa, Cola millenii, and Coffea canephora. Each species was planted in three replicates, and parameters such as germination rate, seedling height, and a qualitative vigor score based on seedling morphological quality were recorded. Germination results for the endangered species were generally low, ranging from about 20% to 40%, and the seedlings that emerged tended to show weak development. This may be linked to dormancy issues, seed recalcitrance, or sensitivity to moisture and temperature changes during early growth stages. By contrast, the reference species had higher germination 60% to 85%, and more vigorous seedlings. The results show that standard propagation techniques are not adequate for these threatened species. Many may require seed pre-treatment, carefully timed sowing, and regulated conditions. Tailored propagation strategies are essential for conservation and forest restoration in Nigeria.

Aim: An ethnobotanical study of some medicinal plants was carried out in several markets in the city of Yaoundé in central Cameroon, in the Mfoundi Department, after which chemical screening was carried out on some of them. The aim of this study was to show the different uses of plants in the treatment of abdominal pain of infectious origin. Methodology and Results: The method used was an ethnobotanical survey of adults present in the study area. The survey consisted of administering a questionnaire to ascertain the multiple uses of plants by adults in various markets, and compiling a list of plants used to treat abdominal pain of infectious origin. It resulted in the identification of 95 recipes involving 36 plant species divided into 30 genera and 22 botanical families. Garcinia kola and Garcinia lucida were used in 57 and 37 recipes respectively. The bark was the most frequently used part, accounting for 39.96% of the medicinal recipes. Decoction (41.05%) is the most commonly used method of drug preparation. The oral route is the most commonly used, accounting for 86.32% of cases. Phytochemical sorting of hydrolic and methanolic extracts of Garcinia kola, Garcinia lucida, Annickia affinis, Picralima nitida, Dacryodes edulis, Alstonia boonei, Rauvolfia vomitoria and Drypetes grossweileri revealed that the various drugs in these plants contain phenols, glycosides, saponins, tannins, flavonoids, alkaloids, steroids and anthraquinones, which give them various therapeutic properties. Conclusion: These results can be considered as a source of information for scientific research in the field of pharmacology.

Anti-plasmodial activity and immuno-modulatory properties of extracts of Picralima nitida fruit-rind and leaves in Plasmodium berghei-infected mice

Picralima nitida (Apocynaceae) is widely known for its efficacy in ameliorating the discomfort associated with different diseases. The objective of this research is to investigate the phytochemicals, proximate composition, antioxidant, and antioxidant capacity of unripe aqueous fruit pulp extract of P. nitida. The unripe fruit pulp of P.nitida was dried, ground to powder, and soaked in distilled water. The aqueous extract obtained was analyzed for phytochemicals and found to contain alkaloids, eugenols, flavonoids, phenolics, saponins, tannins, and terpenoids, according to phytochemical analysis. Proximate composition showed a low fiber (0.43%), moisture content (13.09%), fat (14.51%), protein (8.17%), ash content (10.30%), and moderate carbohydrate (53.50%). The antinutrients present in the aqueous extract are alkaloids (8.72 mg/g), Saponins (8.65 mg/g), oxalate (75.95 mg/g) tannins (89.23 mg/g) and phytate (140 mg/g). Mineral analyses showed the presence of Calcium (11.60 mg/g), sodium (21.00 mg/g), and potassium (161.84mg/g) having the highest concentrations. Total phenol, total flavonoid, and vitamin C contents of the aqueous extracts of P.nitida fruit pulp had values of 39.24 mgGAE/g, 24.39 mgQE/g, and 17.02 mgAAE/g, respectively. Increased concentration of the extract led to increased percentage inhibition of DPPH and hydroxyl radicals. These findings revealed the inherent properties of P. nitida fruit pulp and its potential to be utilized therapeutically.

&amp;lt;i&amp;gt;Picralima nitida &amp;lt;/i&amp;gt;seeds are used in traditional medicine to treat cough, bronchitis and headache, hernia, vomiting, diarrhea and finally leucorrhoea. The aim of this work was to evaluate the therapeutic effect of the aqueous extract of &amp;lt;i&amp;gt;Picralima seeds&amp;lt;/i&amp;gt; &amp;lt;i&amp;gt;nitida &amp;lt;/i&amp;gt;on hyperglycemia in rats. The antidiabetic activity of the aqueous extract of &amp;lt;i&amp;gt;P. nitida seeds &amp;lt;/i&amp;gt;was evaluated in diabetic rats. For this purpose, diabetes was induced in rats by intraperitoneal injection of a single dose of 150 mg/kg MC of alloxan solution. After induction, rats were given anhydrous glucose solution (5%) overnight to overcome the hyperglycemic shock induced by the action of alloxan, and then the animals were treated. &amp;lt;i&amp;gt;P. nitida extract caused a marked recovery of body mass in diabetic rats. P. nitida &amp;lt;/i&amp;gt;extract resulted in a significant reduction in induced hyperglycemia in diabetic rats. Regarding biochemical parameters, &amp;lt;i&amp;gt;P. nitida seeds &amp;lt;/i&amp;gt;resulted in a marked improvement in the physiological state of rats by reducing biochemical parameters such as urea, ASAT, ALAT, creatinine, and uric acid as well as lipid and protein parameters. Administration of &amp;lt;i&amp;gt;P. nitida seeds &amp;lt;/i&amp;gt;promoted the production of alpha amylase and lipase in diabetic rats. The use of this plant in the treatment of diabetic rats would therefore justify the therapeutic properties of &amp;lt;i&amp;gt;P. nitida seeds&amp;lt;/i&amp;gt;.

Purpose: Traditional medicine has utilized Picralima nitida (Apocynaceae) to treat a variety of illnesses, including microbial and pain-induced infections, diabetes, inflammation, and malaria. Methods: The phytochemical screening, haematological, and histological studies were carried out using already established methods. Results: Alkaloids, saponins, tannins, proteins, carbohydrates flavonoids, reducing sugars, and terpenoids detected in the extract. The histology of the organ treated by the stem bark extract showed no form of organ damage and toxic damage when treated with the plant extract and when compared to the control. Haematological studies of the effects of the stem bark of P. nitida extract on the red blood cell and it’s components; hamacrite (HCT), haemoglobin (HGB) and red blood cell (RBC) at 200, 400 and 800 mg/kg showed slight increase in RBC showing that P. nitida stem bark extract can increase the ability of the blood to transport oxygen and hence, could be effective in treating certain diseases like anaemia. All the mice that received the plant extract experienced an increase in WBC counts. White blood cells are involved in battling illness and the extracts may stimulate their production. The result of the white blood cell demonstrates that the P. nitida extract significantly affected the white blood cells (WBC), lymphocyte (LYM), and granulocyte (GR) counts. Conclusion: The study revealed that Picralima nitida could serve as an intoxicating source of haematinic agent and as such; further studies should be carried out on the isolation of the active agents responsible for this potency

Picralima nitida is a plant commonly used in traditional African medicine for its antimalarial, antidiuretic, antidiarrheal, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects. The aim of this work was to evaluate the effect of the aqueous extract of Picralima seeds nitida on the glycemia of rats. To achieve this objective, we performed phytochemical screening using the tube revelation method. The effect of the aqueous extract of Picralima nitida seeds on glycemia was evaluated in normoglycemic and hyperglycemic rats. The screening results indicated the presence of polyphenols, catechic tannins, flavonoids and saponins. The results of the effect of the extract on blood sugar showed that the extract did not cause hypoglycemia or hyperglycemia in normoglycemic rats. As for the effect of the extract on blood sugar in hyperglycemic rats, the extract caused a significant reduction in hyperglycemia induced in rats with glucose. The antihyperglycemic and antihypoglycemic properties that the seeds of Picralima nitida highlighted in this work, reveal that the seeds of this plant would be a powerful remedy in the treatment of diabetes thanks to its active ingredients.

Comparative reducing and carbohydrate enzyme inhibitory activities of the root, leaf, and seed of Picralima nitida

The health implications of synthetic drugs in poultry production have spurred interest in organic-based alternative antioxidants. This study was aimed at evaluating the antioxidant effect of Picralima nitida seed powder (PnSP) on performance characteristics, egg quality, and egg lipid profile of laying chickens, while also investigating its potential for worm control and effects beyond anti-oxidative activities. ISA Brown laying chickens (30 weeks old, n=90) were fed PnSP-supplemented diets in a 56-day feeding trial. Birds were randomly allocated to five dietary treatments supplemented with 0, 0.05, 0.1, 0.15, and 0.2 g/kg PnSP. They were replicated six times and three birds per replicate. Performance characteristics, egg quality metrics, lipid profile, faecal egg counts were evaluated. Data collected were subjected to one-way analysis of variance and treatment means separated using Duncan Multiple Range Test at p&lt;0.05. Results showed that performance and egg quality parameters were not adversely affected by PnSP supplementation. Daily Feed Intake decreased with increasing PnSP levels. Triglyceride and Very Low Density Lipoprotein (VLDL) levels were significantly reduced with increased PnSP, indicating potential cardiovascular benefits. The perception for taste did not follow a definite pattern while, notably, fecal egg worm counts were absent in layers fed diets containing 0.05, 0.1, and 0.15% PnSP while 1,200 opg was observed in those fed control diets, suggesting anti-parasitic properties. This unexpected finding implies that PnSP's effects extend beyond its known anti-oxidative activities, potentially offering a dual benefit of improving egg quality while controlling intestinal parasites. In conclusion, the phytochemicals in Picralima nitida appear to exhibit multifaceted biological activities, including antioxidant and anti-parasitic effects. These properties make PnSP a promising natural supplement for enhancing poultry health and productivity while reducing reliance on synthetic drugs. Les implications sanitaires des médicaments synthétiques dans la production avicole ont suscité un intérêt pour les antioxydants alternatifs à base d'organique. Cette étude visait à évaluer l'effet antioxydant de la poudre de graine de Picralima nitida (PGPn) sur les caractéristiques de performance, la qualité des œufs et le profil lipidique des œufs des poules pondeuses, tout en examinant son potentiel de contrôle des vers et ses effets au-delà des activités antioxydantes. Des poules pondeuses ISA Brown (âgées de 30 semaines, n=90) ont été nourries avec des régimes supplémentés en PGPn lors d'un essai alimentaire de 56 jours. Les oiseaux ont été répartis au hasard en cinq traitements alimentaires supplémentés avec 0, 0,05, 0,1, 0,15 et 0,2 g/kg de PGPn. Chaque traitement a été répété six fois avec trois oiseaux par répétition. Les caractéristiques de performance, les métriques de qualité des œufs, le profil lipidique et le comptage des œufs fécaux ont été évalués. Les données collectées ont été soumises à une analyse de variance à un facteur et les moyennes des traitements ont été séparées en utilisant le test de Duncan à p&lt;0,05. Les résultats ont montré que les paramètres de performance et de qualité des œufs n'étaient pas affectés de manière défavorable par la supplémentation en PGPn. La consommation alimentaire quotidienne a diminué avec l'augmentation des niveaux de PGPn. Les niveaux de triglycérides et de lipoprotéines de très faible densité (LTFD) ont été significativement réduits avec l'augmentation de PGPn, indiquant des avantages cardiovasculaires potentiels. La perception du goût ne suivait pas un schéma défini, tandis que, de manière notable, les comptages d'œufs fécaux de vers étaient absents chez les pondeuses nourries avec des régimes contenant 0,05, 0,1 et 0,15 % de PGPn, tandis que 1 200 opg ont été observés chez celles nourries avec des régimes témoins, suggérant des propriétés antiparasitaires. Cette découverte inattendue implique que les effets de PGPn s'étendent au-delà de ses activités antioxydantes connues, offrant potentiellement un double avantage d'amélioration de la qualité des œufs tout en contrôlant les parasites intestinaux. En conclusion, les phytochimiques dans Picralima nitida semblent exhiber des activités biologiques multifacettes, y compris des effets antioxydants et antiparasitaires. Ces propriétés font de PGPn un complément naturel prometteur pour améliorer la santé et la productivité avicoles tout en réduisant la dépendance aux médicaments synthétiques.

In Silico exploration of 16-demethoxy-20′-epi-serpentinine from Picralima nitida as a potential inhibitor of Plasmodium falciparum enoyl acyl carrier protein reductase