Photon Rest Mass Research Articles

Atomic multiwave interferometer for Aharonov-Casher-phase measurements

We present an atomic multiwave interferometer with magnetic sublevels to precisely determine the Aharonov-Casher (AC) geometric phase. Simulations show that this interferometer has sharper fringes than a normal two-wave interferometer, which means a higher phase resolution can be achieved. Moreover, atoms evolving in a single hyperfine structure state make the interferometer insensitive to the dc Stark phase shift. This dc Stark shift is one of the main noise sources in AC phase measurements. The constraint of the photon rest mass is also discussed when using this atomic interferometer to measure the Aharonov-Casher phase.

普朗克常数与光子静止质量常数统一实验分析

光子有没有静止质量是物理学的一个基本问题。爱因斯坦将普朗克常数h作为光子的能量常数，表明光子没有静止质量。本文对吸收光谱、普朗克黑体辐射公式和爱因斯坦光电效应理论与实验进行分析研究，结果表明普朗克常数h不是光子的能量常数，而是原子核外轨道电子或金属导带自由电子的能量常数，并提出了光子静止质量常数hm假设。以光子静止质量常数和普朗克常数同时解释吸收光谱、黑体辐射和光电效应以及其他相关物理实验更具有合理性。本文对普朗克常数h与光子静止质量常数hm的论证，为物理学相关理论与实验的发展提出了新的思路。 Whether the rest mass of photon is zero is one of the fundamental problems in physics. Einstein used Planck’s constant h as a constant of the photon energy, indicating that the photon is no rest mass. In this paper, the analysis and research results of the absorption spectroscopy, Planck’s blackbody radiation equation, Einstein’s photoelectric effect theory and experiment show that Planck’s constant h is not the energy constant of the photon but rather the energy constant of the nucleus outside orbit electrons or metal conduction band free electrons. A constant hm of photons rest mass is assumed. It is more reasonable that the photon rest mass constant and Planck’s constant are used to explain the absorption spectra, blackbody radiation and the photoelectric effect, and other related physical experiment. The argument about Planck’s constant h and constant hm of photons rest mass put forward new ideas for the development of relevant theoretical and experimental physics.

Planck’s Quantum Hypothesis and Concept of Mass from Special Relativity

It is established that special relativity and quantum mechanics are two very wide apart theories of measurements in modern physics in terms of determinism versus indeterminism. Modern physics accepts indeterminism against classical determinism. But it is remarkable that Einstein's special relativity in its present form alone contains the basic ingredients of quantum theory. Einstein's theory can give a simple theoretical proof of the Planck's quantum hypothesis and can explain the origin of mass out of zero rest mass of photon. This article at the first place shows how to proceed in this path from relativistic energy momentum relations and at the second place it shows the reason of energy and momentum indeterminacy from the framework of relativity. At the last phase the article puts a question on the sustainability of special relativity itself before oscillation of any kind. This paper deals with the matter to the extent special relativity containing quantum theory. Index Terms— Special relativity, simultaneity of events, Planck's quantum theory, energy momentum 4 vector, Heisenberg's indeterminacy principle, concept of mass, ensemble of photon. —————————— a —————————— 1 I NTRODUCTION t is a common belief that the jurisdiction of special relativi- ty and quantum theory are mutually exclusive. In 1900 Max Planck gave his famous quantum hypothesis of light together with the energy- frequency relation . Eh Q In 1905 Einstein gave special relativity. Both the regime went their own way and ultimately clashed each other with the arrival of Heisenberg's indeterminacy principle in 1926. Einstein con- ceded defeat to Bohr ultimately but still believed that quan- tum theory lacks something very serious. But modern physics points clearly to the triumph of Heisenberg's indeterminacy principle in every context. Nonetheless it is worthwhile to mention that the very genesis of quantum theory of light pre- scribed by Eh Q and the very essence of mass can be de- rived even in the frame work of special relativity. Even Ein- stein could get it using his own energy momentum relation. Planck's quantum relation of photon and the construction of mass from an ensemble of photons are indeed inbuilt in Ein- stein's theory. We can even reconcile Heisenberg's principle of indeterminacy with the framework built by Einstein.

5D World-Universe Model Space-Time-Energy

5D Space-Time-Energy World-Universe Model is a unified model of the World built around the concept of Medium, composed of massive particles (protons, electrons, photons, neutrinos, and dark matter particles). The Model provides a mathematical framework that enables precise calculation of medium-bound physical parameters: Hubble’s parameter, intergalactic plasma parameters, temperature of microwave background radiation and the rest mass of photons. This paper aligns the World-Universe Model (WUM) with the theoretical framework developed by Prof. P. S. Wesson, albeit assigning a new physical meaning to the fifth coordinate. In the World-Universe Model, the fifth dimension is associated with the total energy of the Medium of the World, and the gravitomagnetic parameter of the Medium serves as the dimension-transposing parameter.

Potential Role of the Entanglement Velocity of 10<sup>23</sup> m·s<sup>-1</sup> to Accommodate Recent Measurements of Large Scale Structures of the Universe

The aggregate of m7·s-1 from the product of the four geometric terms for increasing dimensions of a closed path (a circle) when set equal to the optimal combinations of the gravitational constant G and the universe’s mass, length and time results in a diffusivity term of 1023 m·s-1. Conversion of the total energy of the universe to volts per meter and Tesla results in a velocity of the same order of magnitude. The required f6 multiplication to balance the terms solves optimally for a frequency that when divided by the modified Planck’s value is the equivalent upper limit of the rest mass of a photon. Several experimental times associated with orbital distances for inertial frames are consistent with this velocity. Calculations indicate that during the final epoch the velocity from the energy derived from universal potential difference over length and magnetic fields will require only a unit frequency adjustment that corresponds to the energy equivalent of one orbit of a Bohr electron. We suggest that one intrinsic process by which large scale structures (Gigaparsec) are organized could involve this “entanglement velocity”. It would be correlated with the transformation of “virtual” or subthreshold values of the upper rest mass of photons to their energetic manifestation as the universe emerges from dark energy or matter that is yet to appear.

Potential Role of the Entanglement Velocity of 10<sup>23</sup> m·s<sup>-1</sup> to Accommodate Recent Measurements of Large Scale Structures of the Universe

The aggregate of m7·s-1 from the product of the four geometric terms for increasing dimensions of a closed path (a circle) when set equal to the optimal combinations of the gravitational constant G and the universe’s mass, length and time results in a diffusivity term of 1023 m·s-1. Conversion of the total energy of the universe to volts per meter and Tesla results in a velocity of the same order of magnitude. The required f6 multiplication to balance the terms solves optimally for a frequency that when divided by the modified Planck’s value is the equivalent upper limit of the rest mass of a photon. Several experimental times associated with orbital distances for inertial frames are consistent with this velocity. Calculations indicate that during the final epoch the velocity from the energy derived from universal potential difference over length and magnetic fields will require only a unit frequency adjustment that corresponds to the energy equivalent of one orbit of a Bohr electron. We suggest that one intrinsic process by which large scale structures (Gigaparsec) are organized could involve this “entanglement velocity”. It would be correlated with the transformation of “virtual” or subthreshold values of the upper rest mass of photons to their energetic manifestation as the universe emerges from dark energy or matter that is yet to appear.

Method of Images to Study the Charge Distribution in Cases of Potentials Deviating from Coulomb’s Law

The method of images is used to study the charge distribution for cases where Coulomb’s law deviates from the inverse square law. This method shows that in these cases some of the charge goes to the surface, while the remainder charge distributed over the volume of the conductor. In accord with the experimental work, we show that the charge distribution will depend on the photon rest mass and is very sensitive to it; a very small value of the rest of mass of the photon will create deviation from Coulomb’s law.

Some Consequences of Zero Point Energy

Both theory and experiments indicate that the vacuum is not a state of empty space, but is populated by electromagnetic fluctuations at a lowest nonzero level, the Zero Point Energy (ZPE). This debouches into considerable changes of fundamental physics, as shown by a revised quantum electrodynamic theory (RQED) applied to elementary particles, and by a revised ZPE frequency spectrum applied to the expanding universe. The Standard Model based on a vacuum state of empty space is thus replaced by RQED, thereby resulting in massive elementary particles from the beginning, independently of the theory by Higgs. Also the basic properties of the Higgs-like particle detected at CERN can be reproduced by RQED. It further leads to new fundamental results beyond the theories by Dirac and Higgs, such as to a deduced value of the elementary net charge, magnetic confinement of charged particle configurations, intrinsic local particle charges, photon spin with a very small but nonzero photon rest mass, and needle-like particle-wave properties which contribute to the understanding of the photoelectric effect and two-slit experiments. The real macroscopic pressure due to the revised ZPE frequency distribution further influences the dynamics of the expanding universe, by the ZPE photon pressure gradient acting as dark energy, and the ZPE photon energy density acting as dark matter. This results in a model being consistent with the observed scale, the rate of expansion, and the stability of a flat expanding observable universe.

On the wavelength dependence of the photon rest-mass

Wavelength dependence of the photon rest-mass is explicitly determined by averaging the relativistic mass of the photon as a function of its velocity whose wavelength dependence is also taken into account.

Relative Transformation of Matter Motion Based on theArbitrary Wave Velocity

Albert Einstein proposed the special relativity under the condition that using light wave as the signal and the propagation velocity of light wave in vacuum is a constant. According to the special relativity, Albert Einstein concluded that the rest mass of photon is zero and the velocity of any matter could not exceed that of light. These conclusions are doubted by many experimental phenomenons. In this paper, the wave that could carry arbitrary signals was used to transfer information. Assuming the velocity of the wave is a constant, the parameters of matter motion was calculated with the Lorentz transform. The results show that rest mass of photon may be not zero, when the wave with a velocity exceeding that of light is used as the propagation carrier. And also, obtain the conclusion that the powerful gravitation would change the density distribution of photon in the universe. The light wave will change the direction of propagation according to the density distribution of photon. As a result, the route of light propagation will change too. Photons will be attracted into the black hole continually by its limitless attraction force. In addition, wave propagating though photons could not escape the gravitation of the black hole.

The quantum potential for photons

As a concept from the de Broglie–Bohm theory for quantum mechanics as alternative to the Copenhagen interpretation, the so-called quantum potential is determined for a single photon. In addition, by imposing maximization of this potential, the wavelength dependence of the photon rest-mass is estimated which agrees qualitatively with previous work.

Re-estimatation of the Upper Limit on the Photon Mass with the Solar Wind Method

The currently accepted value for the upper limit on the photon rest mass comes from a rough estimate based on the solar wind method. We reconsider this method and present a more detailed analysis of the electromagnetic fields in interplanetary space. The simple analytic expressions for the solar wind magnetic field, electric field and current are obtained with a finite photon mass. The upper limit on the photon mass is re-estimated as mγ < 0.8 × 10−54 kg, which improves the current bound by up a factor of 2, and further confirms the reliability of the solar wind method.

Photon rest-mass and velocity versus wavelength

The rest-mass and velocity of the photon are treated as functions of wavelength. In fact, by assuming the photon rest-mass as inversely proportional to wavelength, we show that the photon velocity does not depend on wavelength. In contrast, the photon rest-mass being considered as independent of wavelength, we show that the photon velocity depends on wavelength and we calculate this wavelength dependence.

The optical potential for photons interacting with matter

The optical potential for photons interacting with matter is expressed mathematically by using the involved relativistic wave-number. In fact, the above expression is derived from equating the optical-potential energy to the kinetic energy of a single photon. Since the photon rest-mass is included in the above mathematical expression, that this mass is actually non-zero and wavelength-dependent is considered.

New Discoveries and the Necessity of Reconsidering the Perspectives on Newton's Second Law

According to the mainstream physicists the observation and record of the motion of neutrinos at ultra relativistic speeds apparently seem to violate relativity postulate and to violate the speed of light as a universal constant. The Einstein mass-energy equation E=mc2, the relativistic mass, relativistic form of Newton's second law, the fundamental principles and equations of modern physics by generalizing this anomaly will be challenged. Some other observations and results make possible the speeds higher than speed of light which is not rather incredible and it will not be impossible; it only requires a change in today's attitudes towards relativity and quantum mechanics. Thus this paper, from a new approach, turns out to merge the fundamental principles of quantum physics, relativity and classical mechanics through a new definition of quiescent state of particles like photon, and attempts to present the reasons and the possibilities of the existence of the superluminal speeds. At the beginning of the 20th century, Newton's second law was corrected considering the limit speed c and the relativistic mass. At that time there has not been a clear understanding of the subatomic particles and basically there was little research in high energy physics, if we ignore the zero rest mass of photon, much better and more real physical phenomena may be investigated.The speed of the created particles is a function of the internal interaction and the mechanism of creation of subatomic particles, and the external forces that are exerted on them.

Upper bounds on the photon mass

The effects of a nonzero photon rest mass can be incorporated into electromagnetism in a simple way using the Proca equations. In this vein, two interesting implications regarding the possible existence of a massive photon in nature, i.e., tiny alterations in the known values of both the anomalous magnetic moment of the electron and the gravitational deflection of electromagnetic radiation, are utilized to set upper limits on its mass. The bounds obtained are not as stringent as those recently found; nonetheless, they are comparable to other existing bounds and bring new elements to the issue of restricting the photon mass.

Photon and graviton mass limits

Efforts to place limits on deviations from canonical formulations of electromagnetism and gravity have probed length scales increasing dramatically over time.Historically, these studies have passed through three stages: (1) Testing the power in the inverse-square laws of Newton and Coulomb, (2) Seeking a nonzero value for the rest mass of photon or graviton, (3) Considering more degrees of freedom, allowing mass while preserving explicit gauge or general-coordinate invariance. Since our previous review the lower limit on the photon Compton wavelength has improved by four orders of magnitude, to about one astronomical unit, and rapid current progress in astronomy makes further advance likely. For gravity there have been vigorous debates about even the concept of graviton rest mass. Meanwhile there are striking observations of astronomical motions that do not fit Einstein gravity with visible sources. "Cold dark matter" (slow, invisible classical particles) fits well at large scales. "Modified Newtonian dynamics" provides the best phenomenology at galactic scales. Satisfying this phenomenology is a requirement if dark matter, perhaps as invisible classical fields, could be correct here too. "Dark energy" {\it might} be explained by a graviton-mass-like effect, with associated Compton wavelength comparable to the radius of the visible universe. We summarize significant mass limits in a table.

An ultrarelativistic approach to derive the photon rest-mass as a function of wavelength

A formula for the photon rest-mass as a function of wavelength is obtained from an approximate relationship for the velocity of a photon as a particle with mass under an ultrarelativistic approach. Our results agree well with previous theoretical findings.

Testing Nonclassical Theories of Electromagnetism with Ion Interferometry

We discuss using a tabletop ion interferometer to search for deviations from Coulomb's inverse-square law. Such deviations would result from nonclassical effects such as a nonzero photon rest mass. We discuss the theory behind the proposed measurement, explain which fundamental, experimentally controllable parameters are the relevant figures of merit, and calculate the expected performance of such a device in terms of these parameters. The sensitivity to deviations in the exponent of the inverse-square law is predicted to be a few times 10(-22), an improvement by 5 orders of magnitude over current experiments. It could measure a nonzero photon rest mass smaller than 9 x 10(-50) grams, nearly 100 times smaller than current laboratory experiments.

Photon mass and quantum effects of the Aharonov-Bohm type

The magnetic field due to the photon rest mass ${m}_{ph}$ modifies the standard results of the Aharonov-Bohm effect for electrons, and of other recent quantum effects. For the effect involving a coherent superposition of beams of particles with opposite electromagnetic properties, by means of a tabletop experiment, the limit ${m}_{ph}\ensuremath{\simeq}{10}^{\ensuremath{-}51}\text{ }\text{g}$ is achievable, improving by 6 orders of magnitude that derived by Boulware and Deser for the Aharonov-Bohm effect.