This study examines the historical development of medical ethics and the philosophy of medicine, emphasizing the significance of the Hippocratic Oath in contemporary medical practice. It outlines the Oath’s role as the earliest ethical framework regulating the doctor–patient relationship and its lasting influence on modern professional ethics. The study also highlights key ethical and philosophical challenges that arise from applying Hippocratic principles to today’s medical context. Using descriptive-analytical and historical methods, the research underscores the central importance of “medical ethics and the philosophy of medicine in the Hippocratic Oath and modern medicine.” The findings show that the Hippocratic Oath is the foundation of traditional medical ethics, yet modern medical-ethical issues have surpassed the standards set by Hippocrates and Galen. Given the profound transformations in the medical profession and the risk of dehumanization, returning to traditional Hippocratic values is no longer feasible. This calls for rethinking medical professionalism in a way that reflects the significant changes the field has undergone in recent decades.

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) comprises Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis, and that is a major risk factor for colitis-associated colorectal cancer (CAC), a distinct and aggressive malignancy driven by chronic intestinal inflammation. Artemisinins, a group of sesquiterpene lactones derived from Artemisia annua, have emerged as promising therapeutic candidates for IBD due to their potent anti-inflammatory and anticancer properties. In this review, we summarize the current evidence that artemisinins exert diverse pharmacological actions including modulation of immune responses, reduction of oxidative stress, preservation of epithelial barrier function, and suppression of oncogenic signaling relevant to IBD and CAC. We also introduce the recent progress in formulation strategies designed to enhance the bioavailability, tissue specificity, and therapeutic efficacy of artemisinin-based agents. By bridging traditional medical philosophy with modern pharmacological insights, artemisinins represent a versatile platform for preventing and treating inflammation-driven colorectal cancer. This review offers a comprehensive overview of their translational potential in addressing the IBD-CAC continuum.

BackgroundBreast cancer is a highly heterogeneous disease, and there is a continuing need for robust prognostic tools that can also inform therapeutic strategies. This study aimed to develop a novel prognostic signature for breast cancer by leveraging the multi-target philosophy of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM).MethodsWe systematically analyzed 221 TCM prescriptions for breast cancer to identify potential herb-related targets. A 20-gene herb-related risk score (HRS) was constructed using least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (LASSO) Cox regression in The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) breast cancer cohort (n=1,097). The model’s prognostic performance was validated in three independent cohorts: Molecular Taxonomy of Breast Cancer International Consortium (METABRIC) (n=1,466), GSE20685 (n=327), and GSE10886 (n=226). We further investigated the association of the HRS with the tumor immune microenvironment and potential drug sensitivity using bioinformatics algorithms.ResultsThe HRS served as an independent prognostic factor for overall survival (OS) [TCGA: hazard ratio (HR) =2.03, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.25–3.30, P=0.004; METABRIC: HR =1.82, 95% CI: 1.59–2.10, P<0.001]. Time-dependent receiver operating characteristic analysis demonstrated consistent prognostic discrimination, with an area under the curve (AUC) for 3-year OS of 0.709 (95% CI: 0.657–0.761) in the TCGA cohort. A high HRS was significantly associated with an immunosuppressive microenvironment and reduced predicted response to immune checkpoint blockade. Furthermore, the signature identified several compounds (e.g., sirolimus, temsirolimus) with potential heightened sensitivity in high-risk patients.ConclusionsThis study developed and validated a novel TCM-derived gene signature that reliably stratifies breast cancer patients into distinct risk groups and is independently prognostic. While its clinical utility requires extensive validation in prospective studies before it can inform patient management, this novel gene signature may serve as a potential tool for individualized risk assessment and prognosis prediction, while also generating compelling hypotheses for guiding immunotherapy and targeted therapy strategies, contributing to the ongoing exploration of precision oncology in breast cancer.

Aim: This study aims to examine the historical and ethical aspects of anatomy and animal experimentation in Western culture, focusing on the interplay between ethical principles and scientific inquiry. Method: The study employed a descriptive historical analysis technique. From February to May 2025, a survey of scholarly literature on anatomy and ethics, spanning from antiquity to the present, was conducted to elucidate the historical connection between anatomical knowledge and ethical frameworks. Findings: Anatomical research developed via morally controversial procedures, including human dissection and animal experimentation. Pioneering individuals like as Herophilos and Galen established early methodological principles, with Galen's perspectives on animal consciousness and suffering shaping Western medical philosophy for centuries. Religious ideologies and societal factors subsequently constrained anatomical research. In the 19th century, animal rights movements and discussions around dissection inspired legal reforms. In the 20th century, the 3R concept (Replacement, Reduction, Refinement) and institutional ethics committees established institutionalized ethical monitoring. Currently, innovations like organ-on-a-chip illustrate the convergence of scientific advancement with ethical awareness. Conclusion: The historical development of anatomical research demonstrates that ethical responsibility is crucial for the validity and durability of scientific knowledge. As scientific processes advance, their ethical frameworks must also adapt.

Medical history of psychopathology is, to some extent, the history of the overlapping traditions of Cartesian-Platonic dualism and physical reductionism looking for a taxonomic middle ground by means of diagnostic constructs. Building on such liminality, Freud first showed that traumatic memories could well be made of pure fantasy, a mind-only construct of experience, and still act traumatically on the patient’s body. Under that sway, Freud and Janet came to intentionally modify their patients’ memories to cure “hysterical” dysfunctional behaviours by means of hypnosis. The metaphorical practice of “writing new words in the human soul” has been adopted as a clinical device since the early days of psychotherapy, as the meaning of past experiences was clinically approached, verbally and emotionally negotiated, to remove somatic symptoms. Working on memory at the interdisciplinary level, we here show that what is nowadays referred to as the abstract mind, or psyche in medicine, is the historical precipitate of quite a unique cultural construction, resulting from the porous liminality between religious domain, philosophical theory and scientific method. We hereby address psychopathology, the philosophy of medicine and the frontiers between memory and fantasy—besides those between body and mind—to suggest how psychoanalysis can be considered more as a hermeneutic than as a science, or otherwise, how hermeneutics can be appreciated as a scientific, medical and therapeutic tool. Memory itself is addressed on the threshold between consciousness, organic life and intergenerational potential.

The establishment of the Museo Anatomico was deeply rooted in centuries of scientific thought and medical education in Naples. Influenced by the legacy of Vesalius, Severino, and Cotugno, it emerged from a tradition of rigorous anatomical study, challenging established doctrines and embracing empirical observation. These figures played a crucial role in shaping Enlightenment-era medical philosophy, reinforcing principles of rationality, objectivity, and continuous discovery that defined the evolution of medical sciences in Naples. We here report the history of the Museo Anatomico and its origins, from private collections of human and animal preparations, both natural and pathological, by naturalists, apothecarties, anatomists and even botanists of the 16 th -17 th centuries. The precise date of its establishment, in a small room inside the University, is 1818 and was the work of Prof. Francesco Folinea. Over time, the museum incorporated wax models, human and animal skeletons, and specimens collected by influential figures such as Angelo Boccanera, Domenico Cotugno, and Antonio Nanula. Through acquisitions and donations, the collection expanded significantly: during the VII Congress of Scientists, which was held in Naples from 20 September to 5 October 1845, it was decided to move it to the second floor of the University building, to a much larger hall and in a much more prestigious context. Under Stefano delle Chiaje, the museum became a centralized institution for comparative anatomy, receiving rare specimens and establishing a system to catalog pathological anomalies. Following delle Chiaje’s death in 1860, Italian unification and University reforms, and especially the destruction of the manuscript catalogue drawn up by delle Chiaje himself, led to the museum’s reorganization, and later, significant events like World War II and a 1980 earthquake disrupted its unity. Recent efforts focus on cataloging and restoring the historical and scientific significance of its collections, underscoring its role in the rich Neapolitan medical research history.

Overcoming the dilemma of mind-body dichotomy: Enlightenments of Daoist philosophy for modern medicine

Medical practice is not immune to epistemological dogmatism, particularly in its assumptions about normality, pathology, and therapeutic intervention. These challenges are magnified in contexts where medicine intersects with complex socio-cultural realities. In Africa, the coexistence of Western biomedicine and African traditional medicine creates additional conceptual, ethical, and practical tensions that demand philosophical scrutiny. This study aims to critically examine foundational concepts in medicine especially health, disease, illness, and sickness, in order to clarify contested boundaries between normality and abnormality. It further seeks to interrogate diagnostic practices, therapeutic expansion, and professional conduct from a philosophical perspective, with particular emphasis on African socio-cultural and existential contexts. The study employs an analytic–critical philosophical method. Conceptual analysis is applied to key debates in the philosophy of medicine, medical ethics, psychiatry, and medical sociology. Comparative reflection is used to situate Western biomedical practice alongside African traditional medicine, highlighting points of convergence, divergence, and ethical concern. The analysis shows that many medical controversies arise from conceptual ambiguity, scientific dogmatism, and the uncritical medicalization of non-pathological human conditions. In the African context, these problems are exacerbated by political interference, economic pressures, infrastructural deficits, and insufficient integration of psychosocial and cultural dimensions of care. Reductionist biomedical models are shown to be inadequate for addressing lived experiences of illness. Philosophical interrogation is essential for promoting ethical, humane, and context-sensitive medical practice. In Africa, a genuinely health-promoting medical model must integrate biomedical science, traditional medicine, and the humanities in order to safeguard human dignity and sustain holistic well-being.

Scholars in philosophy of medicine and bioethics have recently turned their attention to transformative experiences: experiences that teach something new that one could not have known before having the experience, while simultaneously changing one as a person. Sanne Elisa van der Marck recently argued, drawing on the work of Fiona Woollard, that the subjective experience of pregnancy should be included in moral debates on abortion, since pregnancy is a transformative experience. Van der Marck implicitly suggested that such a view strengthens autonomy-based pro-choice abortion arguments because only pregnant people have crucial knowledge of what it is like to be pregnant. However, as I will show, the upshot of her argument is that it undermines the autonomy-based pro-choice arguments. This is because if pregnancy is a transformative experience, then it becomes increasingly difficult to give informed consent for abortion, since only by going through pregnancy would one gain the knowledge of 'what it is like' that is necessary to make the rational choice of having the abortion in the first place. Thus, her argument has a counterintuitive conclusion-it limits rather than reinforces reproductive autonomy.

This paper explores the historical and generational interplay between healthcare and sickness, tracing their coevolution from ancient traditional knowledge to the modern biomedical era. By synthesizing major developments in medical philosophy, institutional care, and disease patterns, the study reveals how generational knowledge transmission has shaped societal responses to illness. The analysis demonstrates that the tension between sickness and care serves as a vital engine of human progress, influencing ethics, technology, and public policy across centuries. The present curriculum of medicine has to be redesigned to give priority to modernization of healthcare systems so as to prevent the people falling sick. The aspiring medicos should be taught about systems signs that addresses psychological, social and economic determinants of disease. The courses in medical education should take the approach of a patient centered, whole-person approach focused on long term functional status so that, will help to face the current fragmentation of care and allow for standardization of prevention strategies. It is obligatory on the part of the respective government to introduce in their educational system curricula, psychological, social and economic determinants of a disease. The medical education should emphasize homeostasis and health rather than only disease and diagnosis and provide training in the science and practice of cost effective health programs/procedures. The healthcare mission/program of any country should be in the form of preventive care and not sick care. The ‘You-break’ and ‘I-fix’ reactive care model has become outdated and one’s aim needs to centered about prevention. Stopping or improving a current illness is imperative and achieved through closing the care gaps that are identified. It is mandatory of any nation to introduce specially designed healthcare programs to reduce the disease burden and improve the health of the population and make available to every citizen of their country access to healthcare. Such programs should be so designed that healthcare system should be focused on reversing or modifying disease/ailment not enhancing health. The complexity of health and disease requires a team accountable for the health of our population and these teams must be expanded beyond the healthcare professionals and include government officials, philanthropic institutions, charitable trusts, healthcare workers as stake holders for the education of population about healthcare and sickcare.

This article examines the transformative journey of pursuing a Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) in family medicine and primary care through the lived experiences of four African scholar-practitioners. Using the Hero's Journey framework, the authors reflect on the emotional, intellectual and structural aspects of doctoral education, highlighting the unique challenges faced by clinician-researchers in resource-limited settings. Each vignette illustrates the transition from dreaming to doing by navigating identity shifts, funding obstacles, methodological complexities, as well as the need to balance clinical service with academic development. The article offers practical insights for prospective doctoral degree candidates, including the importance of defining one's purpose, building supportive networks, and adopting adaptable strategies. It also calls for institutional reforms to enhance supervisory capacity and funding mechanisms. By merging personal narratives with reflective analysis, the authors aim to inspire and equip future doctoral candidates in family medicine and primary care, encouraging them to view their journey not just as an academic endeavour but as a pathway to leadership, thereby strengthening the discipline's knowledge foundation and enhancing primary care. This contribution serves as a guide for moving from aspiration to action, offering practical wisdom for navigating the complexities of doctoral education in African primary care contexts.

Since ancient times, Chinese medicine has had a profound cultural heritage. From the very beginning, Chinese medicine has focused on research related to medical humanities, with a particular emphasis on medical methodology and philosophy. On the path of medical development in China, Chinese doctors value and comprehend the "Way of Medicine", and the "Wuwu View" is one of the important philosophical thoughts of medicine proposed by the orthopedic scientist Zhang Yu, which is the "philosophical view and methodology of medicine". The teaching of medical undergraduate students integrates the philosophical thinking of "Wu Wu Guan", promoting innovation in clinical practice and avoiding the path of "mediocre doctors misleading people". This inspires medical undergraduate students to have good medical philosophy thinking and methodology in clinical, scientific research, and teaching aspects of their careers, enabling them to continuously improve and develop innovation in their medical professional field through the combination of "good service and good understanding".

In December 2024, the journal Voprosy Filosofii hosted an interdisciplinary “round table”, The Intellectual Legacy of Daniil Mikhailovich Vellansky in the Con­text of Contemporary Problems of the Philosophy of Knowledge, dedicated to the 250th anniversary of the birth of this outstanding Russian philosopher, scholar, medical practitioner, and translator of scientific literature. Russian philosophers and humanities scholars – epistemologists, historians of philosophy, historians of medicine, philologists – discussed source-critical and historiographical prob­lems in studying Russian Schellingianism as a phenomenon of intellectual cul­ture; highlighted the significance of D.M. Vellansky’s conceptual constructions for the development of the philosophy of medicine; identified the fundamental foundations of his organic theory; focused on the reception of his ideas in Rus­sian philosophy and culture; and demonstrated his role as a scholar, teacher, and translator in disseminating philosophical and scientific knowledge in Russia. The participants also addressed the interdisciplinary character of his philosophi­cal and scientific interests, as well as the problem of ‘human-sizedness’ dimen­sions in the philosophy of science, the origins of which can be traced to Vellan­sky’s fundamental reflections. Despite disciplinary and conceptual differences, scholars involved in the discussion agreed that Vellansky’s intellectual legacy, like Russian philosophy of the 19th century as a whole, requires today a prob­lem-oriented reinterpretation and a revitalization of fundamental historical-philo­sophical research aimed at expanding our understanding of the epistemological style of Russian intellectual culture.

Physiological medicine provides general clinical understanding of the disordered conditions and their management. Whereas the other aspect relates to the biophysical and mathematical medicine that provides the subtle mechanisms or the theoretical philosophy of medicine. The biophysical and mathematical concepts, principles and mechanisms lead to the real understanding of the science and art of medicine. There are pertinent biophysical concepts for understanding the transient receptor potential polycystin-2 (TRPP2) or polycystin-2 (PC2) channels, e.g., Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz (GHK) equations for determining membrane potential, Boltzmann equation for model gating probabilities, and Nernst equation for determining equilibrium potential of a single ion. Protein-protein interaction for the activity of TRPP2 channels and membrane and cytoskeletal regulation are quite hot topics. More innovative approaches involve with the newer findings that PC2 interacts with cytoskeleton especially in primary cilia of kidney cells and forces and dynamics are modelled. In cytoskeletal abnormalities, PC2 mutations cause disordered conditions, e.g., polycystic kidney disease (PKD). The structures in cytoskeleton e.g. a): actin, tropomyosin-1 (TM-1) and alpha-actinin in interaction with PC2 for stabilizing the normal structure and functions of cells, b): for the regulation of PC2 channel activity, the actin by conformational changes modulates PC2 for permitting the cells to have the sense for responding to the physical forces, c): interaction of microtubules with PC2 leading to the regulation of proteins in microtubules for the mechanosensation and the occurrence of cytoskeletal link to endoplasmic reticulum, d): triggering of the calcium influx via PC2 by a complex of PC1 and PC2 in primary cilium membrane, that causes the calcium signal to control various cellular functions. Despite continual research efforts, it still could not be understood how polycystins interact and work in normal and disordered functions e.g., cyst formation. The cyst formation in fact is a dysregulated repair process, and polycystins seem involved in regulating the repair processes. Further research would uncover the mechanism reversing the cyst formation and cystic diseases. It is, hence, hoped for the novel therapeutic approaches. The current article explores the role of protein-protein interaction for the activity of TRPP2 channels and membrane and cytoskeletal regulation in normal cellular functions and disordered conditions. At quite subtle level, the physiological or clinical medicine, and the mathematical medicine or the medicine based on theoretical philosophical interpretations merge and provide a common mechanism of understanding the normal and disordered conditions.

Concepts of health and disease: insights from experimental philosophy of medicine

Elmi Hayati / 20230302790548 / 2025 / The Effectiveness of Body Space Medicine Therapy in Managing Chronic Low Back Pain in Patients at the Simalungun Protestant Christian Church / Ir. Hilman Rama Pratama, S.Ud., S.Tr.Kes., M.Pd. Chronic low back pain is a musculoskeletal disorder that often reduces quality of life and productivity. In the ICD-11, Chapter 26 Traditional Medicine (TM1), chronic low back pain is categorized as Lumbago or Yao Tong (腰痛) with the code SC61 Yao Tong. Body Space Medicine (BSM) or Kōngjiān Yīxué is a modern therapeutic method rooted in Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) philosophy, emphasizing the balance of body energy through the harmonization of internal spaces. This study aims to determine the effectiveness of BSM therapy in patients with chronic low back pain at GKPS Palembang. The research employed a case study design involving three patients who underwent six sessions of BSM therapy. Evaluations were carried out through anamnesis, tongue observation, vital sign assessment, and patients’ subjective responses. The results showed a decrease in pain intensity, improvement in sleep quality, increased vitality, and positive changes in tongue condition. In conclusion, BSM therapy is effective as a complementary approach to reduce chronic low back pain complaints and improve quality of life.

ABSTRACT The current revival of interest in classic psychedelics and other psychoactives such as ketamine and MDMA, coupled with changes to their regulatory status in many jurisdictions, necessitates rigorous ethical guidelines both within and beyond clinical and scientific contexts. This paper examines crucial ethical, philosophical, and policy considerations needed to ensure psychedelic use across various settings remains equitable, beneficial, consensual, and safe, with appropriate accountability mechanisms for addressing potential harms. We seek to broaden the lens beyond the medical model of psychedelics to include potentially valuable non-medical applications that could benefit individuals, communities, and society. With popular interest in psychedelics growing outside of therapeutic and research settings, there is a need to determine which aspects of any proffered guidelines, or underlying principles, should be applied similarly across contexts and in what ways there should be flexibility and/or context-sensitivity in their interpretation or application. In developing such guidelines, we suggest the “treatment versus enhancement” distinction – and associated debates familiar from bioethics and philosophy of medicine – requires renewed attention. We argue that neglecting non-medical and broad scientific use cases for psychedelics may have important implications for a range of ethical issues surrounding psychedelic use and research, including concerns about psychedelic hype and exceptionalism (both positive and negative), therapeutic touch, informed consent, data-gathering, and balancing access and safety. We conclude with suggestions for future directions in research and policy in the burgeoning area of psychedelic bioethics, stressing the importance of incorporating the perspectives of a diversity of stakeholders and fostering cross-sector collaboration.

In recent years, medical higher education institutions have actively followed the 《National Guidelines for Public Art Courses in Ordinary Colleges and Universities》 to offer art courses, aiming to implement aesthetic education. Calligraphy class is an important component of art courses. Calligraphy education is of great significance in improving the humanistic literacy of medical students, inspiring their innovation ability, enhancing their philosophical thinking, and many other aspects. Hippocrates once said that medicine is both a science and an art. Calligraphy is a shining pearl in the field of art. Conducting calligraphy education in medical higher education institutions not only teaches medical students how to write, but also enhances their understanding of medical philosophy and methodology. As a "stone from another mountain", calligraphy can guide medical students' clinical practice and continuously improve clinical diagnosis and treatment effectiveness.

The article proves that the term “Descartes’ medicine” is appropriate to denote a “useful science” that had to be created. During his lifetime, Descartes never began to create it. Therefore, none of his works (both published and drafts) can be called “medical texts” in an indirect sense. I argue with the thesis of Fabrizio Baldassarri, who calls the treatises L’Homme and La Description du corps humain such texts. I criticize contemporary works on Descartes’ “medicine” or “medical philosophy” (interpreted as independent branches of Descartes’ research) for their methodological unsoundness. Based on Descartes’ classification of sciences and on his “order” of 1647 research program, I argue that there is no reason to speak of Descartes’ properly “medical” explorations. Descartes’ studies of anatomy and physiology are a legitimate part of his “physics,” not “medicine,” although they are referred to the latter. I also identify three meanings of the term “medicine” in Descartes’ texts, arguing that none of them gives grounds for considering L’Homme and La Description du corps humain as “medical texts” in the Cartesian sense.

Background: The interplay of spirituality and medicine in Buddhist India can be used as a paradigm platform that has been guiding the healing activities more than 2000 years. Understanding the ancient Ayurveda and combining it with Buddhism spiritual values have been the study of this research work toward their applicability in the contemporary field of healthcare. Aim: Examine the history of the development, theoretical and practical use of Buddhist spirituality of the Indian medical tradition, with the analysis of research gaps and further perspectives of the development of integrative healthcare methods. Materials and methods: The study employed a systematic literature search with the inclusion of peer-reviewed articles (2020-2025) in literature reviews concerning the integration of spirituality and medicine, Buddhist medicine, Ayurveda practices in India, and mindfulness-based intervention in medicine. Results: Buddhist medical philosophy focuses on mind-body-spirit relationship where meditation and mindfulness are core forms of therapy. The latest studies prove a high effectiveness of mindfulness-based interventions in managing anxiety, depression, chronic pain, and stress-related diagnoses. Combining the original practice of Buddhist healing with Ayurveda holds potential in personalized medicine practices with possible standardization issues. Conclusions: The Buddhist philosophy on medicine can serve as a meaningful critique of the contemporary integrative medical practice, especially regarding the treatment of psychosomatic diseases and the maintenance of the whole-bodied health. Nevertheless, questions in relation to mechanistic insights, standard procedures, and clinical trial scale remain considerably unaddressed in terms of research..