Pheasant Range Research Articles

Declining Survival of Ring-Necked Pheasant Chicks in Illinois during the Late 1900s

Previous studies indicated that survival of ring-necked pheasant (Phasianus colchicus) chicks during the first 6 weeks of life declined from the early 1950s through early 1980s in Illinois with the expansion of corn and soybean production and associated clean farming practices. From the early 1980s through mid-1990s intensive row-crop production was moderated by farm programs such as the Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) and annual set-aside, which diverted millions of hectares of cropland from production. We evaluated the survival of pheasant chicks in Illinois in relation to these recent land-use practices. Specifically, our objectives were to determine if there were changes in chick survival during the 1980s and 1990s, and if there wer regional differences in chick survival related to land-use practices. We observed 574 broods along transect roa routes on the Sibley Study Area (SSA) in eastcentral Illinois, and 964 broods on routes throughout the pheasant range in Illinois. In spite of the increase in potential brood habitat on set-aside farmland, chick survival remained low from 1982 to 1996. For example, there was a 5-fold increase in the amount of forage legumes and small grains on the SSA from 1987-91 compared to 1975-81, with the average number of chicks per brood at 4.3 (1987-91) and 4.2 (1975-81). For survey routes throughout the Illinois pheasant range, the number of grassy fields (primarily narrow, linear tracts) in 1990 was positively correlated (r 2 = 0.15, P < 0.02, n = 37) with chicks per brood, but this relation explained only 15% of the variation. The lack of improvement in chick survival in recent decades relates to the pervasive clean farming practices in the Illinois pheasant range. More-over, most of the set-aside land in the Illinois pheasant range was under annual contract and seeded late to monotypic oats, which is cover of marginal value to foraging pheasant chicks.

Hay Cutting and the Survival of Pheasants: A Long-Term Perspective

Hay Cutting and the Survival of Pheasants: A Long-Term Perspective

Evaluation of a Korean Pheasant Introduction in Missouri

We evaluated the success of releases of 4,172 South Korean pheasants (Phasianus colchicus karpowi) in the Missouri River bottom in west-central Missouri by measuring dispersal, breeding effort, brood production, and survival during and after the 5 release years, 1967-71. Dispersal of tagged pheasants released at 2 sites in 1970 averaged 2.9 km; the farthest movement was 24 km. A winter survey in 1972 indicated that distribution of pheasants in the area approximated the annual dispersal limits. High initial mortality of released birds was suggested by recoveries of tagged birds released in 1970. Substantial numbers of broods reported by landowners in annual surveys, and moderate crowing cock indices for 6 years following the last release indicate a reproducing population that is stabilizing at a low density. Lack of suitable nesting cover may be a factor limiting further growth of this population. J. WILDL. MANAGE. 41(4):616-623 In recent years land-use changes have altered the environment in a large part of Missouri, rendering it less suitable for native upland game populations. Despite these alterations much of the area appears to be potential pheasant range. Ring-necked pheasants (Phasianus colchicus torquatus) were first introduced into Missouri in the early 1900's. From 1904 to 1933 an estimated 40,000 ringnecks were distributed by the Game and Fish Department (Bennitt and Nagel 1937:53). The disappearance of the bird convinced game biologists that with existing land-use trends and climatic conditions in Missouri the ring-necked pheasant could not reproduce and survive in sufficient numbers to sustain hunting except in the northwest counties (Fig. 1). In 1958 the Department of Conservation began a program of experimentally releasing the progeny of several pure strains and hybrids of wild-trapped Asian pheasants. Initia breeding stock was secured through a cooperative agreement with the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife in conjunction with its Foreign Game Introduction Program (Bump 1963). One of the subspecies selected for release in Missouri was the South Korean ring-necked pheasant (P. c. k rpowi). South Korean ringnecks were selected because they were known to breed in captivity, their behavioral attributes were similar to the other successfully introduced ringnecks, and their native habitats were similar in many respects to those in Missouri, the upper Midwest, and parts of the eastern United States. The South Korean climate (Bohl 1970) with hot, humid summers characterized by frequent heavy rainfall, and average winter temperatures below freezing with snow falling no more than 30 days annually, is similar to the Missouri climate. 1 Contribution from the Missouri Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Missouri Department of Conservation, Wildlife Management Institute, and University of Missouri-Columbia, cooperating), from Federal Aid Project 13-R-23, Missouri Department of Conservation, and from the Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Journal Series Number 7616. The senior author was supported by a Paul K. Wehmiller Fellowship. 2 Present address: Ashland Wildlife Research Area, School of Forestry, Fisheries and Wildlife, University of Missouri-Columbia, Ashland 65010. 3 Present address: Division of Habitat Preservation Research, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, D.C. 20240. 616 J. Wildl. Manage. 41(4):1977 This content downloaded from 157.55.39.102 on Mon, 03 Oct 2016 04:08:36 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms KOREAN PHEASANTS IN MISSOURI -Wollard et al. 617

Aerial Pesticide Applications and Ring-Necked Pheasants

In 1970 aerial applications were made to a 24-hectare section in southwestern Idaho utilizing ethyl parathion in May, demeton and DDT-toxaphene in June, and trichlorfon and demeton in July. Aerial application resulted in a very uneven distribution of chemicals on the ground. Gas chromatographic analysis of residues collected on glass plates during aerial applications showed ranges of 0-2058 ,igrams per plate within the treated area. Observations on penned and radio-equipped wild pheasants (Phasianus colchicus) revealed no direct mortality from the spraying. Penned pheasants 5-15 days old exhibited symptoms of organophosphorus poisoning, but recovered. Cholinesterase and weight gains did not differ significantly in treated and untreated penned pheasants. According to the results of sweep net samples, insect populations were significantly lower in the treated area compared to the untreated area. Juvenile pheasants collected in the treated area consumed significantly fewer insects than birds taken in the untreated area. Applications of certain organochlorines and organophosphorus pesticides probably kill some pheasants, especially young birds, but results suggest that use of demeton, ethyl parathion, DDT-toxaphene, and trichlorfon at recommended application rates does not cause major pheasant losses in southwestern Idaho. J. WILDL. MANAGE. 38(4):679-685 Pesticides, particularly the persistent organochlorines, have contributed to the decline of several species of raptorial and fish-eating birds (Peakall 1970). Organochlorines have also produced harmful effects in the ring-necked pheasant (Azevedo et al. 1965, Baxter et al. 1969). The use of DDT and many other organochlorines has rapidly declined in the pheasant range of southwestern Idaho in recent years. The development of insect resistance and legal restrictions have deleted a number of uses for organochlorines. Organophosphorus and carbamate insecticides have replaced the organochlorines. Some of these chemicals have a high initial toxicity but residue problems are comparatively minor. The organophosphorus pesticides may pose a threat to ground-feeding birds. The pheasant, a ground resident, may be directly harmed by the high dermal and oral toxicity of certain organophosphorus insecticides. Christensen (1969) found that methyl parathion caused substantial mortality of 1to 10-day-old pheasant chicks under minimum exposure conditions. Thus, additional research with other organophosphorus pesticides is justified, especially under field conditions. The objective in this study was to evalu1 Contribution from the Idaho Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit, U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Idaho Fish and Came Department, the Wildlife Management Institute, and the College of Forestry, Wildlife, and Range Sciences, University of Idaho, cooperating. 2 Present address: Department of Zoology, the University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada V6T iW5. 3 The laboratory portion of the research was supported under Contract 68-02-0552 by the Division of Pesticide Community Studies, Office of Pesticide Programs, Environmental Protection Agency, through the Idaho Department of Environmental and Community Services. J. Wildl. Manage. 38 (4):1974 679 This content downloaded from 40.77.167.21 on Mon, 25 Jul 2016 04:07:01 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 680 PESTICIDE APPLICATIONS AND PHEASANTS * Messick et al. Table 1. Pesticides applied by fixed-wing aircraft to the spray zone on Gold Island, Idaho, during 1970. Rate of Date of Chemicals and application application concentration (kg/ha) a 22 May ethyl parathion (47%) 0.9 24 June demeton (25%) DDT0.3 (demeton) toxaphene (25% DDT, 2.4 (DDT-) 50% toxaphene) 4.7 (toxaphene) 23 July demeton (25%) 0.3 (demeton) trichlorfon (80%) 1.2 (trichlorfon) a Expressed as active ingredient applied with 46.7 kg H20 per hectare. ate the effects of selected organochlorines and organophosphates on pheasants and their insect food supplies, utilizing both wild and penned birds. We explored the degree of exposure, survival, nesting success, movement patterns, consumption of insects, and cholinesterase inhibition under pesticide-treated and control conditions. We thank the following who helped with various phases of this work: J. Uranga, J. Gabica, H. Homan, B. Wood, V. Bowman, M. Howard, J. Martin, and scouts in Explorer Post 60.

Hunting Results on Cropland Adjustment Program Land in Northwestern Indiana

A study was initiated in 1968 to determine hunting success on farms in northwestern Indiana participating in the Cropland Adjustment Program (CAP) and receiving public access payments. Heavy hunffng pressure because of the public access provision resulted in a 2S percent lower kill of game per hunter than on nonparticipating farms. However, the game killed per acre was four times greater on the CAP lands. Agency cost per unit of game kil]ed decreased from $9.08 in 1968 to $5.0S in 1970. Agency cost per hunter effort decreased from $5.12 in 1968 to $1.82 in 1970. Tlle long-term land retirement program with the public access provision increased hunting opportunities on private lands. In 1966 and 1967 the United States Department of Agriculture offered landowners long-term land retirement in the CAP. One provision of the program was an additional payment for allowing public access to private lands. In Benton and Newton counties, 1,404 acres, 0.3 percent of the cropland, were enrolled in GAP of which 725 acres were included in the public access provision. For the participating farms, wildlife management biologists of the Indiana Division Of Fish and Wildlife were assigned responsibility for making recomlmendations on seeding rates, habitat improvement measures, and amount of payment for the public access. In 1968, a study was initiated to determine hunting success on publi-c access areas. A companion study to determine hunting success on three nonparticipating farms was initiated in 1969. All the farms under study were located in Benton and Newton counties, the center of Indiana's pheasant range. We thank Dr. C. M. Kirkpatrick, Purdue University, for reviewing the manuscript.

The Effects of Weather and DDT Spraying on a Ruffed Grouse Population

Pheasant (Phssiarlus colchicus) nesting use of soil bank land was observed on a 37719-acre dryland study area in northern Utah during 1964 and 1965. A projected 85 percent of all successful nests were produced on 43 percent of the area retired under the Conservation Reserve Program of the Soil Bank. Absence of nests both years on sample plots in grainfields suggests low nesting use of this type which, together with summer fallow, comprised 41 percent of the area. Recommendations for future land retirement programs in similar dryland situations include early developing plant species and provision for residual cover carry-over for early nesting, long-term contracts, and emphasis within established pheasant range. 1020 Journal of Wildlife Management, Vol. 33> No. 4, October 1969 the Maritime Provinces. Forest Research Branch, Canada Dept. Forestry, Ottawa. 167pp. MAcDoNALD, D. R. 19%. Summary statements on the entomological assessment of the 1966 spruce budwoIm aerial spraying program in New Brunswick and forecast conditions for 1967. Unpublished report. Forest Research Lab., Dept. Fisheries and Forestry, Fredericton, New Brunswick. 12pp. Mimeo. RITCEY, R. W., AND R. Y. EDWARDS. 1963. Grouse abundance and June temperatures in Wells Gray Park, British Columbia. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 27 ( 4 ): 604-606. SIIVONEN, L. 1957. The problem of the shortterm fluctuations in numbers of tetranoids in Europe. Finnish Game FoundatioIl Papers on Game Research 19, Helsinki. 44pp. SNEDECOR, G. W. 1956. Statistical methods applied to experiments in agriculture and biology. The Iowa State University Press Ames. 534pp. WRIGHT, B. S. 1960. Woodcock reproduction in DDT-sprayed areas of New Brunswick. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 24(4):419420. . 19B5. 50me effects of heptachlor and DDT on New Brunswick woodcocks. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 29(1 ) :17b18S. Received for publicatuvn July 8, 1968. In Utah, the Conservation Reserve Program of the Soil Bank resulted in 215,657 acres of cropland being retired from pro1 Study financed by the Utah Division of Fish and Game, Utah State University, Wildlife Management Institute, and the Bureau of Sports Fisheries and Wildlife through the Utah Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit. 2 Present address: Little Hills Game Experiment Station, Meeker, Colorado 81641. duction and placed in alternate uses primarily grasses and legumes (U. S. Department of Agriculture 1964:21). Nearly all of this land was dry-fanned, and although Utah's pheasant range aligns closely with irrigation, there is overlap onto adjacent dry-farm areas. During 19 and 1965, pheasant nesting on soil bank land was investigated in a dryLITERATURE CITED DANE, C. W. 19(36. Some aspects of breeding biology of the blue-winged teal. Auk 83(3): 38>402. DORNEY, R. S., AND C. KABAT. 1960. Relation of weather, parasitic disease and hunting to Wisconsin ruffed grouse populations. Wisconsin Conserv. Dept., Tech. Bull. 20. 64pp. EDMINSTER, F. G. 1947. The ruffed grouse its life story, ecology and management. The Macmillan Company, New York. 38Spp. FINLEY, R. B.> JR. l965. Adverse effects on birds of phosphamidon applied to a Montana forest. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 29(3):580-591. HALE, J. B., R. F. WEN1Wr, AND G. C. HALAZON. 1954. Sex and age criteria for Wisconsin ruffed grouse. Wisconsin Conserv. Dept., Tech. Wildl. Bull. 9. 24pp. HALLIDAY, W. E. D. 1937. A forest classification for Canada. Dept. Mines and Resources, Ottawa. Forest Serv. Bull. 89. S0pp. HOFFMAN, R. S., R. G. JANSON, AND F. HARTKORN. 1958. E:ffect on grouse populations of DDT spraying for spruce budworm. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 22(1):9b93. LARSEN, J. A., AND J. F. LAHEY. 1958. Influence of weather upon a ruffed grouse population. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 22(1 ) :6>10. LOUCKS, O. L. 1w2. A forest classification for This content downloaded from 157.55.39.178 on Fri, 05 Aug 2016 05:37:44 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms

Pheasant Nesting on Soil Bank Land in Northern Utah

Pheasant (Phssiarlus colchicus) nesting use of soil bank land was observed on a 37719-acre dryland study area in northern Utah during 1964 and 1965. A projected 85 percent of all successful nests were produced on 43 percent of the area retired under the Conservation Reserve Program of the Soil Bank. Absence of nests both years on sample plots in grainfields suggests low nesting use of this type which, together with summer fallow, comprised 41 percent of the area. Recommendations for future land retirement programs in similar dryland situations include early developing plant species and provision for residual cover carry-over for early nesting, long-term contracts, and emphasis within established pheasant range. 1020 Journal of Wildlife Management, Vol. 33> No. 4, October 1969 the Maritime Provinces. Forest Research Branch, Canada Dept. Forestry, Ottawa. 167pp. MAcDoNALD, D. R. 19%. Summary statements on the entomological assessment of the 1966 spruce budwoIm aerial spraying program in New Brunswick and forecast conditions for 1967. Unpublished report. Forest Research Lab., Dept. Fisheries and Forestry, Fredericton, New Brunswick. 12pp. Mimeo. RITCEY, R. W., AND R. Y. EDWARDS. 1963. Grouse abundance and June temperatures in Wells Gray Park, British Columbia. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 27 ( 4 ): 604-606. SIIVONEN, L. 1957. The problem of the shortterm fluctuations in numbers of tetranoids in Europe. Finnish Game FoundatioIl Papers on Game Research 19, Helsinki. 44pp. SNEDECOR, G. W. 1956. Statistical methods applied to experiments in agriculture and biology. The Iowa State University Press Ames. 534pp. WRIGHT, B. S. 1960. Woodcock reproduction in DDT-sprayed areas of New Brunswick. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 24(4):419420. . 19B5. 50me effects of heptachlor and DDT on New Brunswick woodcocks. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 29(1 ) :17b18S. Received for publicatuvn July 8, 1968. In Utah, the Conservation Reserve Program of the Soil Bank resulted in 215,657 acres of cropland being retired from pro1 Study financed by the Utah Division of Fish and Game, Utah State University, Wildlife Management Institute, and the Bureau of Sports Fisheries and Wildlife through the Utah Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit. 2 Present address: Little Hills Game Experiment Station, Meeker, Colorado 81641. duction and placed in alternate uses primarily grasses and legumes (U. S. Department of Agriculture 1964:21). Nearly all of this land was dry-fanned, and although Utah's pheasant range aligns closely with irrigation, there is overlap onto adjacent dry-farm areas. During 19 and 1965, pheasant nesting on soil bank land was investigated in a dryLITERATURE CITED DANE, C. W. 19(36. Some aspects of breeding biology of the blue-winged teal. Auk 83(3): 38>402. DORNEY, R. S., AND C. KABAT. 1960. Relation of weather, parasitic disease and hunting to Wisconsin ruffed grouse populations. Wisconsin Conserv. Dept., Tech. Bull. 20. 64pp. EDMINSTER, F. G. 1947. The ruffed grouse its life story, ecology and management. The Macmillan Company, New York. 38Spp. FINLEY, R. B.> JR. l965. Adverse effects on birds of phosphamidon applied to a Montana forest. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 29(3):580-591. HALE, J. B., R. F. WEN1Wr, AND G. C. HALAZON. 1954. Sex and age criteria for Wisconsin ruffed grouse. Wisconsin Conserv. Dept., Tech. Wildl. Bull. 9. 24pp. HALLIDAY, W. E. D. 1937. A forest classification for Canada. Dept. Mines and Resources, Ottawa. Forest Serv. Bull. 89. S0pp. HOFFMAN, R. S., R. G. JANSON, AND F. HARTKORN. 1958. E:ffect on grouse populations of DDT spraying for spruce budworm. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 22(1):9b93. LARSEN, J. A., AND J. F. LAHEY. 1958. Influence of weather upon a ruffed grouse population. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 22(1 ) :6>10. LOUCKS, O. L. 1w2. A forest classification for This content downloaded from 157.55.39.223 on Wed, 24 Aug 2016 05:05:37 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms PHEASANT NESTING ON SOIL BANK LAND * Bartmann 1021 farming district to provide a basis for recommendations concerning future landretirement programs in portions of the intermountain region. Previous studies of pheasant-soil bank relationships were made by Schrader ( 1959 ), Fouch ( 1983 ), and Trautman ( Ross 1965 ) . Appreciation is extended L. H. Davis, J. M. Neuhold, and A. W. Stokes, Utah State University, for suggestions during the study, and to J. B. Low and J. J. Spillettn Utah Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit, for editorial assistance.

The Effect of Predator Removal on Pheasant Reproductive Success

Effects of nest predation on pheasant (Phasianus colchicus) production were studied on two areas in southern Minnesota during 1960-64. Principal nest predators were striped skunks (Mephitis mephitis), spotted skunks (Spilogale putorius), raccoons (Procyon lotor), and crows (Corvus brachyrhynchos). During the nesting seasons of 1960-62, 434 predators were removed from the 2,560acre Trapped Area; none were removed from the 4,080-acre Untrapped Area. Searches in at least a third of each area's potential nesting cover revealed 460 nests on the Trapped Area and 429 on the Untrapped Area. Nest densities on the two areas were similar each year, but declined during the 3 years. On the Trapped Area, hatching success progressively improved during the study, reaching 36 percent in 1962. On the Untrapped Area, by contrast, hatching success remained consistently low and was only 16 percent in 1962. Predation was highest on poorly concealed nests, especially those located in fencerows. Nest losses from other causes, chiefly haymowing, were comparable between study areas. Clutch size averaged higher on the Trapped Area and chick production per 100 acres was consistently higher than on the Untrapped Area, showing roughly a twofold difference in 1961 and 1962. Dummy nests placed in selected cover types supplemented information obtained from natural nests. Results from the former suggested (1) that predation, especially by crows, was highest early in the nesting season, (2) that predation was highest among poorly concealed nests, and (3) that there were no carryover benefits one year after predator removal. Late summer pheasant censuses were inconclusive, probably because of inadequate sampling and because ingress and egress obscured population responses on our small study areas. Costs of removing predators averaged $21.00 per predator taken and $4.50 for each chick hatched on the Trapped Area in excess of the number hatched on the Untrapped Area. It was concluded that, using presently available techniques, removal of nest predators would not be economically feasible for improving pheasant hunting on extensive agricultural lands, even if the increase in chicks was directly reflected in the fall population. The ring-necked pheasant is primarily a bird of agricultural lands, and production of pheasants is greatly influenced by farming practices. In recent years more intensive farming in Minnesota's primary agricultural range has adversely affected pheasants, most importantly by reducing undisturbed nesting cover. In addition, the availability of small grains has steadily declined because cropping patterns have gradually shifted toward row crops, especially corn and soybeans. Small grains have been a valuable source of nesting cover in Minnesota (Nelson and Chesness 1964). Along with deterioration of nesting habitat, pheasant nest losses have increased from both farming practices and predation (Nelson and Chesness 1964). The present study was carried out during 1960-64 to determine the effect of predator removal on pheasant reproduction in an area of intensive agriculture in the main pheasant range of south-central Minnesota. Conclusions of various authors on the effects of predator control upon game populations differ depending upon the kind and intensity of predation, the degree of predator control, and the prey species. Wagner et al. (1965:108) summarized some results of predator control studies in pheasant range. In general, little pheasant population response was noted either where predator control was limited to only one predatory species as in the New York fox studies (New York Conservation Department 1951) or where only avian predators were controlled (Lauckhart and McKean 1956:65). However, Einarsen (1950) reported in-

Cobalt Levels in Foods and Livers of Pheasants

From 83 cobalt analyses of four foods of pheasant (Phasianus colchicus)--corn, rose hips (Rosa spp.), foxtail (Setaria spp.) seeds, and ragweed (Ambrosia spp.) seeds-and from analyses of 95 pheasant livers it is concluded that cobalt is not a limiting nutritional factor for pheasants in southern Minnesota. Average concentrations of cobalt in ppm were: corn, 0.040; rose hips, 0.069; foxtail, 0.084; ragweed, 0.228; and pheasant livers, 0.23. Concentration of cobalt in foods varied considerably locally and there was no statistically provable difference in concentrations in the four foods or in the livers from glaciated and nonglaciated areas. No seasonal trend in cobalt concentrations in the livers was noted. This study was designed to determine whether cobalt might be deficient in the diet of pheasants in the low density range of Minnesota. Cobalt comprises about 4.5 percent by weight of vitamin B12 (cobalamin), an essential ingredient in the nutrition of warm-blooded animals. For this reason, animals raised on soils very low in cobalt or fed food deficient in cobalt or vitamin B12 may suffer a deficiency. Cobalt is apparently not necessary in the metabolism of higher plants. However, such plants absorb cobalt from the soil and it is used for synthesis of vitamin B12 by some bacteria in the intestinal tract of animals that have eaten the plants. Vitamin B12 is also synthesized by certain soil and aquatic microorganisms. Vitamin B12 deficiency has been noted most often in ruminants (Bourne and Kidder 1953:449, Smith et al. 1956:365). Studies of the diets of ruminants, including deer (Odocoileus virginianus), suggest that forage, to be adequate, should contain at least 0.07 ppm cobalt, expressed as dry weight of the forage. Ruminants have a high demand for vitamin B12 but can store little. It is excreted in both feces and urine. Among other mammals, vitamin B12 is known to be necessary for several species including rat, hog, mouse, fox, mink, and man. The effects of a deficiency are usually anemia and a wasting away of the animals with symptoms similar to starvation. Knowledge of the role of cobalt in the diet of birds is apparently limited to experimental findings for domestic chickens. In the Handbook of Biological Data (Spector 1956:197), the daily allowance of vitamin B12 for chickens is listed as 1.2 micrograms per kilogram of body weight for growth and 0.2 stg for breeding. These values are equivalent to about 0.05 and 0.01 tg cobalt contained in the vitamin per kg of body weight. Hawk et al. (1954:1208) state that chickens on a vitamin B12 deficient diet show a lessened hatchability of eggs, slow growth, and high mortality of newly hatched chicks. The present study was undertaken because it was postulated that knowledge of cobalt concentrations might provide a clue a to why pheasant populations are much lower in the driftless area of southeastern Minnesota than in the glaciated area of south central and western Minnesota which is our principal pheasant range. There is little information on the cobalt content of seeds and other parts of wild plants that are eaten by pheasants and other wild birds. Most cobalt analyses reported, such as those cited by Spector (1956:188189), are for commercial feed products.

Effects of Dietary Calcium Levels on Egg Production and Bone Structure of Pheasants

Captive pheasant (Phasianus colchicus) hens fed various levels of calcium produced more eggs when the amount of calcium in the diet was increased. Birds on high calcium diets would have been able to produce two adequate sized clutches of eggs; birds which had received very little dietary calcium (0.5 percent) could not have produced two clutches. The amounts of calcium, phosphorus, and ash found in femurs varied little between birds fed different levels of calcium. Osteoporosis was detected in female pheasants fed low levels of calcium. Femurs of these birds had enlarged haversian canal systems, as shown by total space occupied by canals, mean canal size, and the amount of cortex present. Bones of birds fed 0.5 percent and 3.2 percent calcium were significantly different in these respects; inconclusive data were obtained from birds fed intermediate levels of calcium. Cocks on low calcium diets showed some evidence of osteoporosis; those receiving adequate calcium showed none. Recent studies have shown that pheasants can select calcium grits when unusual needs arise; thus pheasants might get enough calcium during the breeding season even in low-calcium habitat. To determine whether calcium supplies are adequate it is suggested that breeding females from areas of low populations be examined for evidence of osteoporosis. The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of various dietary levels of calcium on (1) egg production and (2) the physiology of the pheasant hen, with emphasis on postlaying osteoporosis. Knowledge of changes in the skeleton and endocrine system that result from calcium deprivation is essential to evaluation of calcium as a factor influencing pheasant range extension. Leopold (1931:125-126) first suggested that the level of calcium in the soil may significantly influence the distribution of pheasants in North America. The results of later studies supported this hypothesis (McCann 1939 and 1961, Dale 1954, Dale and DeWitt 1958, Greeley 1962). However, the precise relationship between calcium levels and pheasant abundance remains unknown. The subject was recently reviewed by Korschgen (1964:176-177), Harper (1964: 264-265), and Harper and Labisky (1964: 722-723). Even in calcium-rich pheasant range, natural foods alone may not provide enough calcium to meet needs during the reproductive period. Dale (1954:318) found that the amount of calcium obtained from natural plant and animal foods supplied less than 20 percent of the amount required for optimum reproduction. However, pheasants may meet special calcium needs during the reproductive season by increasing mineral consumption (Dalke 1938:54, Trautman 1952:27). The hen's ability to select calcium-bearing grits, as demonstrated by Sadler (1961:341), enables her to increase consumption of calcium before and during the egg-laying period. Korschgen (1964:168) showed that during egg production, pheasant hens throughout the Midwest heavily supplement their diet with calcium-bearing grit or snails. Because of such findings, Korschgen (1964:177-178) and Harper and Labisky (1964:730) expressed considerable doubt about the importance of calcium as a factor limiting pheasant distribution. Eggshell formation requires substantial amounts of calcium, which constitutes 39.2 SThis project was supported by funds from Federal Aid to Wildlife Restoration Project, Surveys and Investigations Projects, Missouri 13-R.

Weather and Pheasant Populations in Southwestern North Dakota

High productivity and survival of ring-necked pheasants (Phasianus colchicus) were correlated with high rainfall and cool temperatures in May and June during an 8-year period in southwestern North Dakota. These findings differed markedly from those of several earlier studies in the less arid midwestern United States where cool, wet weather in the spring generally affected pheasant populations adversely. General trends in the pheasant population could be explained on the basis of precipitation in May and June. The population was relatively high during the mid-1950's when wet and dry May and June periods occurred in alternate years but declined markedly after 2 consecutive years of spring and summer drought. The population remained at a static low during 1960 through 1963 when wet and dry spring and summer periods again occurred alternately. This paper presents the results of a study on the relation of weather to ring-necked pheasant population fluctuations in southwestern North Dakota. The study was initiated after pheasants decreased markedly throughout southwestern North Dakota in conjunction with a period of drought. We surmised that poor reproductive success, caused by the drought, was responsible for the population decline, and we set out to test this possibility by examining weather records and data on pheasant productivity. During the work it became apparent that annual survival was important in the population fluctuations and also appeared to have been affected by weather. Much has been published on the effects of weather on pheasant populations but the results of most studies have differed from ours. Biologists in eastern and midwestern portions of pheasant range have generally concluded that high precipitation and cool temperatures in the spring and summer have adverse effects on productivity (Perry 1946, Allen 1947, Dustman 1950, Kozicky et al. 1955). However, Wandell (1949:374376) cautioned that this is not always true and cited findings in Illinois and Montana where adverse weather and excessive rainfall did not result in decreased pheasant populations. The present study was done in a region of limited precipitation and the results suggest that drought, rather than excessive rainfall, was the factor that limited the pheasant population. We wish to thank the many biologists and game wardens of the North Dakota Game and Fish Department for collecting data, Jack Samuelson and Lloyd Oldenburg for suggestions relating to the analysis, A. D. Geis, A. J. Godin, and R. I. Smith for reviewing the manuscript, and A. J. Godin for preparing the figures. DESCRIPTION OF THE REGION Primary pheasant range in western North Dakota is south and west of the Missouri River (Fig. 1) with highest densities of pheasants in the south-central part of the region. This region is within the Missouri Plateau section of the Great Plains and is locally called the Area. Glaciation (Iowan stage) barely extended south and west of the present Missouri River. The topography of the Slope Area is almost wholly the result of erosion, with much of 1 This paper is a North Dakota Game and Fish Department contribution supported by funds from Federal Aid Project W-67-R-2. 2 Present address: Migratory Bird Populations Station, Laurel, Maryland.

A Thousand Miles of Fox Trails in Michigan's Ruffed Grouse Range

The tracking technique has been used by several investigators for the study of the larger predatory animals. Stebler (1939) says: Stated simply, the method consists of following the trails left by these mammals and interpreting from the clues they may leave, their activities and behavior. Murie (1936) notes: It is practically equivalent to observing an animal for a long period of time under natural conditions. The method has been used rather extensively by biologists of the Michigan Department of Conservation to study the winter habits of wolves (Canis lupus), coyotes (Canis latrans), bobcats (Lynx rufus), and red foxes (Vulpes fulva). Our weather usually solves the most serious limitation of the technique by providing suitable tracking snow from late November to early April. Arnold (1956) trailed foxes to determine their winter food habits in the agricultural areas of southern Michigan, the principal pheasant range of the state. His study involved following fox trails a thousand miles. We conducted the present study primarily to determine the effects of red foxes on ruffed grouse (Bonasa umbellus) during the winter in the northern wild land portion of the state. Field work began in the fall of 1955 and continued for three winters.

Pheasant Winter Roosting Cover Preference in North-Central Colorado

It is axiomatic that good cover in proximity to food constitutes the best insurance against heavy winter losses in upland game-bird populations. Since the North American pheasant range coincides generally with the grain belt, winter food for these birds is usually plentiful. Cover, however, is frequently inadequate, especially as it affects food availability and provides protection against critical winter conditions. Thus, cover is the key to winter habitat, and to survival of breeding stock, over much of the pheasant range. Fundamental in the role of pheasant winter cover is its relationship to roosting. Freezing, or more accurately, suffocation of birds, occurs when they are waiting out blizzard weather, and is most common in inadequate roosting cover (Miller, 1948; Brown, 1948). Other aspects of the roosting-cover problem appear to have been little studied.

A Reevaluation of Plant Communities Within the Pheasant Range in the Nebraska Sandhills

A Reevaluation of Plant Communities Within the Pheasant Range in the Nebraska Sandhills

Some Hatching Curves from Different Areas of Michigan's Pheasant Range

Some Hatching Curves from Different Areas of Michigan's Pheasant Range

The Effect of Climate on Pheasant Range in Hawaii

The Effect of Climate on Pheasant Range in Hawaii

Pheasant Data from a Two-Year Bag Study in South Dakota

During the 1945 and 1946 hunting seasons over 14,000 ring-necked pheasants were examined to obtain age ratios, weights and other data. Most of the birds were checked at locker plants in towns throughout the pheasant range, taking the birds as they came to secure a representative sample. Because hunters frequently traveled considerable distances from the towns in which they stayed, the birds at the locker plants usually came from a number of counties. Thus the data for any one county are modified to some extent by data from birds killed outside the

Some Observations on Farm Game Management Cooperatives in Michigan

This paper concerns the Williamston Plan of game management, but does not deal with its fundamental set-up which is well known. The following statements are based not only upon our observations for the last four years, but also upon experiences of others in these cooperatives during the seven years prior to our entering the work. When the plan for cooperation with rural communities was first discussed by the State Department of Conservation, it was soon realized that in a Commonwealth with 10,000,000 acres of pheasant range, the movement would enjoy very little success if it could not be applied over a large area at a low unit cost. Realizing further that any successful farm organization must be run by the farmers themselves, these cooperative organizations were encouraged to become as democratic as possible. At present in order for farm communities to get cooperation in setting up their cooperatives and in obtaining all the posting material necessary, the Department requires only three things: 1. That the area be not greater than 10,000 acres. 2. That no charge be made for hunting. 3. That the hunting privilege be not restricted to any special group of hunters. All other rules and regulations needed for operation of the organizations are made by the farmers who also administer them. It has been observed that the majority of organizations formed through the primary efforts of the Department or of sportsmen's clubs have not been successful. Requests for assistance from the State Department of Conservation must come directly from the landowners. No effort is made to promote these cooperatives among farm people; we await their initiative. Nevertheless growth in number of these organizations has been rapid as indicated in Table 1. TABLE 1 WILLIAMSTON PLAN COOPERATIVES NumTotal Average Number Year ber of area of of farms co-ops. acreage co-ops. included 1936 1 13,000 13,000 275 1937 34 341,271 10,271 4,768 1938 61 440,999 7,229 5,962 1939 110 497,563 4,523 6,394

The Evaluation of Nesting Losses and Juvenile Mortality of the Ring-Necked Pheasant

Stoddard (1931, pp. 224-225) concluded after his first 5 years of intensive study of the bob-white quail (Colinus virginianus) in southeastern United States that 60% to 80% of the nesting attempts could normally be expected to fail. Nevertheless, few pairs were completely unsuccessful in bringing off young, as, in the event of loss or abandonment of one or of successive clutches of eggs before hatching, renesting attempts were usually made unless the season was too late or the breeding birds were in poor condition. The heavy nesting losses, therefore, served to delay rather than to prevent the final hatching of a brood by a breeding pair, with a resulting higher percentage of immature birds by fall and a lower total hatch and percentage of young birds reared. No evidence was found that the bob-white made any effort to produce a second brood in the same season if a first was successful. Errington's (1933) data on 69 bob-white nests in Wisconsin, so far as they go, substantiated Stoddard's findings. Like the bob-white, the introduced ring-necked pheasant (Phasianus colchicus torquatus) is capable of repeated renesting attempts during the breeding season if previous efforts to bring off a brood have failed. It, too, appears to be a typically one-brood-per-season bird, though the evidence on this point is not conclusive. We have a record of one pheasant brood hatched about April 30, 1933, and it may be possible that a hen hatching out a brood as early as this may still have time, ability, and inclination to bring off a second brood by mid-summer. Even early young, however, are seldom hatched before the latter part of May in Iowa pheasant range and these are commonly seen in regular company with adults as late as August, when the laying season is essentially