Background: Pharmaceutical waste presents a considerable risk to both environmental and human health due to inadequate disposal methods, resulting in problems like water pollution and the rise of antimicrobial resistance. Methodology: This review explores the significant contributions of startups and student-led initiatives in promoting sustainable management of pharmaceutical waste worldwide over the last decade (2015–2025). Various technological innovations, such as AI and IoTenabled smart bins, blockchain systems for traceability, enzyme-driven biodegradation, and 3D-printed neutralization devices, are examined for their efficacy and practicality. Results and Discussion: The review underscores academic efforts like green pharmacy research, awareness initiatives on campuses, and innovation competitions such as the Smart India Hackathon. Despite these advancements, obstacles such as inconsistent regulations, financial challenges in under-resourced areas, and a lack of public involvement persist. Conclusion: This review calls for a unified global policy approach, the incorporation of environmental education into pharmacy programs, and enhanced collaboration among public, private, and academic sectors to expand sustainable strategies in the management of pharmaceutical waste.

Abstract Background Medicines are the most common healthcare intervention. However, disposal of pharmaceutical waste in health facilities contributes significantly to financial costs and carbon emissions, and incorrect disposal can lead to environmental contamination. Appropriate segregation of pharmaceutical waste at the point of use is critical to reduce waste in hospitals. Aim The aim of this study was to assess the effectiveness of a ward‐based education programme to optimise pharmaceutical waste management, through increasing staff knowledge, capability and opportunity to segregate waste and measure changes in waste, costs, carbon emissions, and staff motivation, knowledge, and behaviour. Method We developed and implemented a brief education intervention for staff in patient care areas of a regional hospital and introduced a recycling option for medication blister strips. The intervention encouraged better waste segregation and recycling knowledge and practices. Numbers and weights of pharmaceutical waste bins collected for incineration during a five‐month intervention period (January–May 2024) were compared with a two‐year pre‐intervention period (January 2022–December 2023) using interrupted time series analysis. Pre‐ and post‐intervention surveys assessed staff waste management knowledge, attitudes, and behaviour. Ethical approval was granted by the Greater Western Human Research Ethics Committee (Reference no: 2023/ETH01746) and the study conforms to Australian National Statement on Ethical Conduct in Human Research . Informed consent was obtained from all participants for participation in the education and surveys via distribution of project information and confirmation of electronic consent. Results We found weak evidence of lower bin numbers sent for incineration (p = 0.051) and greater bin weights (p = 0.052). Additionally, 140 L of medication blister strips were collected for recycling. Survey responses post‐education suggested that staff had improved knowledge of pharmaceutical waste management, disposal, and recycling. Conclusion This brief intervention generated improvements in waste management among staff in hospital wards without disruption to work routines. Appropriate education coupled with sustained resources and infrastructure can improve pharmaceutical waste management at point of use with potential benefits for health and the environment.

With gradual recognition of the components and the stakeholders, "One Health approach" became a global strategy for mitigating antimicrobial resistance (AMR). However, the role of improper pharmaceutical disposal, particularly antimicrobials at the household level, remains largely overlooked within One Health strategies. Expired and unused medicines are frequently discarded into household waste, drains, or open environments. The bioactive pharmaceutical residues enter soil, surface water, groundwater, and sediments. Conventional waste management and wastewater treatment systems are not designed to remove these compounds, resulting in chronic, low-level environmental exposure. Such sub-inhibitory concentrations of antimicrobials exert sustained selective pressure on environmental microbial communities, which promotes the emergence, persistence, and dissemination of resistant bacteria. Discarded antimicrobials persist in aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems, reshape microbial communities, disrupt nutrient cycling, and accelerate horizontal gene transfer. The environmental resistome, a vast genetic reservoir connecting environmental microbes with human and animal pathogens, plays a key role in resistance amplification. Evidence from India and other low and middle-income countries reveals the widespread presence of "clinically important resistance genes," including extended-spectrum β-lactamases and carbapenemases, in non-clinical environments. Residues and resistant bacteria can bioaccumulate in aquatic organisms and livestock, facilitating transmission through food chains and communities and often beyond routine surveillance. Despite its significance, household pharmaceutical waste management is largely absent from national and global AMR action plans. Incorporating safe drug disposal may serve as the missing thread in the One Health, apart from environmental monitoring and ecopharmacovigilance, which are critical to reduce environmental selection pressure and resistance propagation.

Nonsteroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs (NSAIDs) are widely used pharmaceuticals that play an important role in the health of both humans and animals. However, improper disposal of these drugs, along with pharmaceutical and hospital waste, has led to their presence in water sources, making them emerging pollutants that require remediation. In this study, a green magnetic activated carbon composite was prepared by incorporating Fe3O4 onto activated carbon synthesized from potato peels. This sorbent was then used to adsorb NSAIDs (aspirin and ibuprofen) from wastewater treatment plant samples. The morphology and structure of the synthesized material were characterized using various techniques. The magnetic activated carbon exhibited a well-defined surface with a Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) surface area of 57.96m²/g and a pore volume of 0.099cm³/g. The Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) image showed that incorporating iron oxide into the activated carbon resulted in the formation of small, well-defined pores. The NSAIDs were analyzed and quantified using High-Performance Liquid Chromatography with a Photodiode Array Detector. The adsorption studies indicated that the data fitted well with the Langmuir isotherm model and followed the pseudo-first-order kinetics. The adsorption mechanism involved electrostatic interactions, π-π interactions, and pore filling. cycle. The magnetic activated carbon derived from potato peelings demonstrated strong reusability and regeneration, and its adsorption capacity declined after the sixth cycle. MAC-KOH30%-PPW shows promise as an affordable sorbent for removing aspirin and ibuprofen from wastewater samples.

Improper treatment of hospital wastes is currently attracting considerable attention due to their infectious and hazardous nature. This study assessed the generation, composition, isolation and identification of bacteria in waste from a tertiary hospital in Abeokuta, Southwestern Nigeria. The quantity of waste generated daily in the hospital was determined for 4 months (2 months each in wet and dry seasons). The wastes were later segregated and categorized into general, infectious, highly infectious, pharmaceutical, pathological, chemical and sharp waste in line with the World Health Organization specifications. Samples of hospital wastes from six selected sections within the hospital were collected and subjected to microbiological examinations. The microorganisms isolated from the waste were identified using deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) extraction and sequencing. The total quantity of waste generated in the hospital during the study period was 13,101.32 kg (6894.92 and 6206.40 kg for wet and dry seasons, respectively). The waste generated per day was 106.51 kg, whereas the quantity of waste generated per bed per day and the quantity of waste generated per patient per day were 0.35 and 0.24 kg, respectively. The DNA extraction and sequencing confirmed the presence of Alcaligenes faecalis , Lysinibacillus fusiformis , Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Bacillus thuringiensis in the hospital waste. Wastes generated in the hospital were hazardous, and physical composition and classification of the medical waste did not vary with season.

Surfactant-Activated pharmaceutical waste biomass for efficient removal of Basic Violet 14: Experimental Investigation, Machine-Learning Optimization, and mechanistic validation by DFT calculations.

Investigation of metals in the autoclaved condensate of packaging materials of pharmaceutical wastes: health and environmental risks.

Interfacial engineering and synergistic insights of porous g-C₃N₄/ZIF-8 composite for enhanced electrocatalytic water splitting and pharmaceutical waste removal

ABSTRACT Pharmaceutical residues are increasingly detected in wastewater, posing health, and ecological threats. Conventional wastewater treatment methods are ineffective against emerging contaminants, necessitating the development of alternative, sustainable adsorbents with higher removal efficiency. Biochar, a carbonaceous material synthesized from thermochemical degradation of biomass with tunable surface chemistry, is a promising option. Microalgae offer distinct advantages, such as exceptional photosynthetic efficiency, the ability to accumulate lipids & carbohydrates, and adaptability. It has demonstrated enormous potential as a feedstock for biochar production, as it can be cultivated on non‐arable land, using wastewater or saline water. The chemistry of microalgae biochar (MAB) makes it uniquely suitable for removing pharmaceutical waste because it combines nitrogen doping, oxygenated groups, phosphate sites, and mineral oxides not common in conventional biochars, enabling removal through a variety of interactions, such as hydrogen bonding, π–π stacking, ion exchange, and metal complexation. Despite the many advantages, studies on MAB for contaminant removal remain fragmented, limited to batch adsorption, and lack mechanistic certainty. Standardized protocols, regeneration data and real wastewater applications are underexplored. This review consolidates scattered evidence on MAB and links its unique chemistry to pharmaceutical removal pathways. It outlines research priorities for translating laboratory‐scale findings to scalable wastewater treatment solutions.

Valorization of wheat-derived pharmaceutical waste via sustainable NADES-based extraction and untargeted bioactive profiling

For the efficient utilization of pharmaceutical waste resources, tuber biochar (TB) and herbal biochar (HB) were prepared via oxygen-limited slow pyrolysis at 500 °C for 3 h, using residues from tuber-type Xinsuning capsule and herbal-type Changyanning pill as the raw materials, respectively. The biochars were characterized by FESEM, BET, XRD and FTIR, and the feedstock physico-chemical properties were measured by common agricultural chemical analysis methods. The results revealed that both biochars possessed a high percentage of elemental O, a honeycomb-like porous structure, and surfaces enriched with functional groups such as hydroxyl, carboxyl, and carbonyl. HB exhibited a larger specific surface area and pore volume than TB, making it a more recommended carbon material. The chemical compositions of the pyrolysis by-products were systematically analyzed. The bio-oils were rich in ketones, alkanes, alcohols, olefins, fatty acids, phenols, and heterocyclic compounds, identifying them as potential sources of liquid fuels and chemical feedstocks. The most abundant components in bio-oils from tuber and herbal biomass were "Ethanol, 2,2-diethoxy-" (7.25%) and "Phosphonic acid, (p-hydroxyphenyl)-" (10.52%), respectively. The syngas has a low hydrogen content, is mainly pyrolysis off-gas and therefore has a limited application potential. Furthermore, the environmental application for Cd²⁺ removal was critically evaluated. Adsorption isotherms demonstrated high adsorption capacities, well-described by the Freundlich model (R² ≥ 0.99), indicating multilayer adsorption. The maximum adsorption capacities for TB and HB were 188.89 and 186.67 mg·g⁻¹, respectively. Kinetic studies revealed that the adsorption process followed the Elovich model (R² ≥ 0.98), suggesting heterogeneous diffusion, with HB achieving a higher equilibrium capacity (85.67 mg·g⁻¹) than TB (73.70 mg·g⁻¹). In conclusion, pyrolysis, particularly using herbal biomass, presents a promising strategy for the comprehensive and high-value utilization of waste pharmaceutical residues, simultaneously producing effective adsorbents for heavy metal remediation and valuable bio-energy products.

Improper disposal of household pharmaceutical waste (HPW) contributes to environmental contamination and public health risks, yet safe disposal practices remain inconsistent in many communities. This study examined the behavioral intentions of urban Malaysian residents toward safe HPW disposal using the Health Belief Model (HBM). A cross-sectional survey was conducted with 450 stratified pharmacy customers across the Klang Valley. Respondents completed a self-administered digital questionnaire assessing HBM constructs on a 6-point Likert scale. Data was analyzed using Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM). The final model explained 63.7% of the variance in behavioral intention (R2 = 0.637; adjusted R2 = 0.635). Cues to action and self-efficacy were identified as the strongest predictors, while perceived susceptibility and perceived benefits influenced perceived severity. Findings highlight three public health strategies: integrating disposal guidance into routine care, embedding visible cues to action in health care and community settings, and strengthening regulatory frameworks to expand accessible take-back infrastructure.

This study analyzes bio-waste generated in hospitals to comprehensively understand its types, quantities, and associated environmental and public health risks. Through a systematic examination of relevant literature and data, it explores various origins and categories of hospital bio-waste, including medical, sharps, and pharmaceutical waste. The research scrutinises bio-waste management strategies employed by hospitals, emphasising both their advantages and disadvantages. Recognising hospitals as pivotal waste generators, the study underscores their role in formulating efficient waste management protocols to ensure safety, reduce environmental impact, and foster eco- friendly practices. Furthermore, the project employs Lean Six Sigma approaches to enhance the cost-effectiveness of bio-waste disposal in hospitals. By identifying and minimising waste, streamlining processes, and improving overall efficiency, this strategy aims to lower disposal costs, optimise resource utilisation, and promote sustainability in healthcare settings. The study draws insights from a reputed private hospital in Tamil Nadu, India, utilising the DMAIC technique to assess waste across various hospital departments. The research provides valuable insights into applying lean methodologies in healthcare waste management, offering practical guidance for businesses seeking to enhance their bio- waste disposal practices

The global rise in pharmaceutical use over the past two decades has led to more unused drug products and a corresponding surge in pharmaceutical waste. Thus, there is an impetus to develop processes for recovering active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) from unused drugs. This study introduces a multiobjective optimization framework for solvent screening to enable sustainable recovery of APIs using a general separation train with cooling crystallization as the final step. The objectives considered are recovery during crystallization, the relative solubilities of API and excipients, and process mass intensity (PMI), which accounts for process sustainability. The framework is demonstrated using various commercial formulations of paracetamol (PA) for experimental validation. The recoveries obtained were in the range 57–63%, and the recovered API samples were of high chemical purity based on characterization using Raman spectroscopy and powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD).

South Africa faces environmental and public health risks due to pollution of various environmental systems by pesticide and pharmaceutical residues resulting from anthropogenic activities. However, regulatory and monitoring mechanisms remain inadequate. This review aimed to assess occurrences, sources, regulatory frameworks, and policy responses related to pesticide and pharmaceutical pollution in South Africa. The review of published (peer-reviewed) articles and government and policy documents found that pharmaceuticals such as acetaminophen and diclofenac, and pesticides such as atrazine, endosulfan, and chlorpyrifos, are commonly reported micropollutants, even though they are banned. The spatial distribution of the reviews shows that Western Cape, Gauteng, and KwaZulu-Natal appear to have more research conducted on these pollutants. Related laws and policies managed by the Department of Agriculture, Land Reform and Rural Development (DALRRD) and the South African Health Products Regulatory Authority (SAHPRA) are insufficient and lack thorough environmental risk assessments, regular monitoring, and strict enforcement. Comparison with the EU, USA, Switzerland, Australia, Japan, and South Korea reveals that these countries have stronger regulatory systems, including obligatory risk assessments, national take-back schemes, and integrated monitoring, which are mostly absent in South Africa. The informal sale of pesticides, misuse, improper disposal of pharmaceutical waste, and the slow implementation of the Integrated Pest Management (IPM) approach further exacerbate the problem. To prevent future risks to ecosystems and public health, the review recommends regulatory adjustments, improved interagency coordination, and enhanced environmental monitoring systems to align South Africa's regulatory framework with world best practices.

Pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) are emerging as the major contaminants of great concern in the world water matrices due to their high numbers, distribution, and bioaccumulation possibilities. The review has examined around 80+ peer-reviewed articles (2014-2026) in the Web of Science, Scopus, and Google Scholar databases, based on the AOP-NBS synergy to pharmaceutical remediation. Systematic searches were done by using cluster of keywords such as advanced oxidation, nature-based solutions, emerging contaminants, and mineralization efficiency as the performance and sustainability of current hybrid treatments. The present review article, the existing and possible remediation techniques of the pharmaceutical waste water have been discussed. The study concludes that the conventional wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) are far from efficient in eliminating complex active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs). Consequently, the integration of advanced oxidation process (AOPs) and nature-based solution is a most essential requirement to attain superior removal efficiencies. An example is hybrid treatment wetlands that used local zeolite that has shown almost 100 percent (93.6-99.9) removal of various antibiotics such as ciprofloxacin and ofloxacin. On the other hand, some of the non-biodegradable compounds such as carbamazepine and diclofenac are observed to be resistant to most treatment regimens with their presence in some systems only clearing 1.1%. The research emphasizes the importance of the hybrid technologies- the combination of biological technologies with AOPs to enhance the biodegradability and the nearly total mineralization. Moreover, the shift to a so-called circular economy based on recovery of resources (up to 80 percent regarding certain materials) and application of the principles of Industry is determined as the important direction of the future. This article offers a strategic guideline in selecting treatment units depending on the nature of wastewater with the aim to reduce the adverse impact of PPCPs on aquatic organisms and human health.

Introduction: The accumulation and inappropriate disposal of unused and expired drugs leads to significant risks to public health and the environment. Unsafe disposal behaviors contribute to the water and soil contamination and increase the potential for drug misuse. Recognizing community knowledge, attitudes, and practices (KAP) is essential for developing effective health promotion strategies to improve pharmaceutical waste management at primary care level. This study primarily aimed to assess the public’s KAP toward disposal of unused and expired drugs and its implications for health promotion in Indonesian primary health care settings. Methods: A cross-sectional survey was conducted among 358 participants selected through purposive sampling at Banguntapan II, Danurejan II, and Mlati II primary healthcare centers in the Special Region of Yogyakarta, Indonesia. Data were technically collected using a prior validated questionnaire and analyzed by using descriptive statistics, Chi-square, and Spearman correlation tests to identify relationships between socio-demographic characteristics and KAP variables. Results: Most participants (88.3%) reported storing unused or expired drugs at home, primarily due to improved health or excess medication. While 64% reported good knowledge and 98.3% showed positive attitudes, only 27.7% practiced proper disposal. Education, income, and medical history significantly influenced knowledge and attitudes (p < 0.05). Moreover, knowledge and attitude were positively correlated with disposal practices (p < 0.05). Conclusion: Although public knowledge and attitudes were generally favorable, disposal practice aspects remained inadequate. Strengthening the pharmacist-led education, implementing the drug take-back programs, and integrating health promotion within primary care services are highly essential to enhance community awareness, ensure safe drug disposal, and protect environmental and public health.

Aerobic composting with goat manure to degrade household pharmaceutical waste: a case study using ciprofloxacin

Background/Objectives: Improper medication use, premature treatment discontinuation, and inadequate disposal contribute to irrational drug consumption and environmental contamination. Although pharmaceutical take-back programs have expanded globally, real-world evidence on household medication accumulation in academic and community settings remains limited. This study aimed to describe longitudinal patterns of medication collection during an eleven-year university-based take-back campaign, with detailed pharmacological characterization available for selected post-pandemic years. Methods: Real-world data were analyzed from a sustainable medication take-back campaign conducted annually at the University of Colima between 2015 and 2025. Expired or unused medications were voluntarily returned by students and community members. Total collected weight was recorded for all years, while detailed classification by dosage form, Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical (ATC) group, and Mexican regulatory fraction (Fractions II, IV, V, and VI) was performed for years with complete records (2023–2025). All materials were disposed of through an authorized hazardous-waste company in compliance with NOM-052-SEMARNAT-2005. Descriptive analyses were performed using SPSS version 29.0. Results: Approximately 3.9 tons of pharmaceutical products were collected over eleven years, reflecting persistent household accumulation of unused or expired medicines. In the years with detailed analysis, oral solid dosage forms predominated. In 2025, ATC groups M, A, and C were most frequently returned, consistent with medications used for chronic conditions. Therapeutic composition varied annually, with NSAIDs/analgesics predominating in 2023–2024 and antibiotics in 2025. Across analyzed years, 5–7% of collected items corresponded to non-medication products. Conclusions: This long-term campaign provides valuable real-world evidence on medication non-use and disposal, highlighting ongoing challenges in rational medicine use, treatment continuity, and environmentally responsible pharmaceutical waste management.

Rising demand for pharmaceuticals has raised concerns about their production and disposal, as poor management can harm the environment. Pharmaceutical waste, including unused and expired medications, mainly comes from households, the pharmaceutical industry, and healthcare facilities. These contaminants can enter the environment through soil, wastewater, landfill leachate, and agricultural runoff and alter the consistency of natural soil. However, limited literature on this topic was encountered during our review, which motivated this study. This research investigates the effect of diclofenac on the consistency and particle packing of Malaysian residual clay using laboratory experiments. Diclofenac was chosen because of its widespread use and frequent detection in the environment. Standard laboratory tests, including consistency limit, mini-compaction, and vane shear tests were performed using varying concentrations of diclofenac and molding water contents. Liquid limit decreased by 5 %, and plastic limit dropped by 26.8 % in samples with 10 g/L diclofenac concentration. While mini-compaction tests showed a 5 % increase in dry unit weight (17.0 to 17.8 kN/m3) and a 14 % decrease in optimum water content. These are related to changes in diffused double layer from flocculation, affecting particle interactions and soil consistency. Vane shear tests indicated that diclofenac does not significantly impact the shear strength of residual soil. This study highlights the influence of pharmaceutical-derived cations on soil consistency and packing, which may vary by tablet matrix and cations released. These findings emphasize for further research considering different pharmaceuticals and soil types to enhance pharmaceutical waste disposal (United Nations Sustainable Development Goal-12).