Demand For Petroleum Products Research Articles

Optimizing in-situ upgrading of heavy crude oil via catalytic aquathermolysis using a novel graphene oxide-copper zinc ferrite nanocomposite as a catalyst

Unconventional resources, such as heavy oil, are increasingly being explored and exploited due to the declining availability of conventional petroleum resources. Heavy crude oil poses challenges in production, transportation, and refining, due to its high viscosity, low API gravity, and elevated sulfur and metal content. Improving the quality of heavy oil can be achieved through the application of steam injection, which lowers the oil’s viscosity and enhances its flow. However, steam injection alone falls short of meeting the growing demand for higher-quality petroleum products. Catalytic upgrading is therefore being investigated as a viable solution to improve heavy oil quality. This study experimentally investigates the application of two novel catalysts, namely copper-substituted zinc ferrite (ZCFO) synthesized via the sol–gel combustion method and a graphene oxide-based nanocomposite (GO-ZCFO) with different ratios, for catalyzing aquathermolysis reactions in the steam injection process, with the aim of enhancing the in-situ upgrading of heavy oil. These catalysts underwent characterization using X-ray powder diffraction (XRD), Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), and Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM). Their catalytic performance was assessed utilizing a high-pressure/high-temperature reactor (300 ml), with a comprehensive analysis of the changes in the physical and chemical properties of the heavy oil before and after upgrading. This analysis included measurements of sulfur content, SARA fractions, viscosity, API gravity, and Gas Chromatography (GC) of saturated hydrocarbons and evolved gases. All upgrading experiments, including both catalytic and non-catalytic aquathermolysis processes, were conducted under a reaction time of 6 h, a reaction temperature of 320 °C, and high pressure (86–112 bar). The results indicated that the introduction of the proposed catalysts as additives into the upgrading system resulted in a significant reduction in sulfur content. This, in turn, led to a decrease in resin and asphaltene content, an increase in the content of saturated hydrocarbon, particularly low-molecular-weight alkanes, and ultimately, a reduction in viscosity along with higher API gravity of the crude oil. GO-ZCFO with a weight ratio (50:50) exhibited the best catalytic performance. The heavy crude oil, upgraded with this 50:50 ratio, exhibited significant enhancements, including a 29.26% reduction in sulfur content, a 21.27% decrease in resin content, a 37.60% decrease in asphaltene content, a 46.92% increase in saturated hydrocarbon content, a 66.48% reduction in viscosity, and a 25.49% increase in API gravity. In comparison, the oil upgraded through non-catalytic aquathermolysis showed only marginal improvements, with slight reductions in sulfur content by 5.41%, resin content by 3.60%, asphaltene content by 11.36%, viscosity by 17.89%, and inconsiderable increases in saturated hydrocarbon content by 9.9% and API gravity by 3.02%. The GO-ZCFO, with its high catalytic activity, stands as a promising catalyst that contributes to improving the in-situ upgrading and thermal conversion of heavy crude oil.

Current Scenario and Global Perspective of Sustainable Algal Biofuel Production.

Industrialization and globalization have increased the demand for petroleum products that has increased a load on natural energy resources. The escalating fossil fuel utilization has resulted in surpassing the Earth's capacity to absorb greenhouse gases, necessitating the exploration of sustainable bioenergy alternatives to mitigate emissions. Biofuels, derived from algae, offer promising solutions to alleviate fossil fuel dependency. Algae, often regarded as third-generation biofuels, present numerous advantages owing to their high biomass production rates. While algae have been utilized for their bioactive compounds, their capability as biomass for the production of biofuel has gained traction among researchers. Various biofuels such as bio-hydrogen, bio-methane, bio-ethanol, bio-oil, and bio-butanol can be derived from algae through diverse processes like fermentation, photolysis, pyrolysis, and transesterification. Despite the enormous commercial potential of algae-derived biofuels, challenges such as high cultivation costs persist. However, leveraging the utilization of algae byproducts could improve economic viability of biofuel production. Moreover, algae derived biofuels offer environmental sustainability, cost-effectiveness, and waste reduction benefits, promising novel opportunities for a more sustainable energy future.

Forecasting Petroleum Products Consumption in the Chadian Road Transport Sector using Optimised Grey Models

This study aims to estimate the demand for petroleum products (PP) in the Chadian road sector by 2030 and to determine which of the two models used is the most efficient. The methodology is based on two optimised Grey models, namely: the Sequential-GM(1,N)-GA and NeuralODE-GM(1,1) models. These models reduce forecasting errors compared with the conventional Grey model. The forecasts confirm that both models are robust, with MAPEs of 1.16% and 2.5% respectively for gasoline and diesel obtained with the Sequential-GM(1,N)-GA, and 3.3% and 4.8% respectively for gasoline and diesel obtained with the NeuralODE-GM(1,1). We note that the Sequential-GM(1,N)-GA is more robust than NeuralODE-GM(1,1) with regard to MAPEs. The estimated consumption needs for gasoline and diesel in the road transport sector by 2030 are 294376818.5 and 381570061.5 litres respectively for the Sequential-GM(1,N)-GA and 264376818.5 and 375570061.5 litres for the NeuralODE-GM(1,1). Based on these results, securing the supply of PP in the road transport sector requires the development of the downstream petroleum sector. The development of alternative energies and the acquisition of hybrid vehicles. A policy encouraging mass transport in urban areas can considerably reduce energy consumption in this sector. This study adds to the literature through the simultaneous use of two new optimised grey models and their comparison in terms of predicting demand for PP in the Chadian road transport sector.

Modular Refineries Offer Advantages for Product Availability in Nigeria

_ This article, written by JPT Technology Editor Chris Carpenter, contains highlights of paper SPE 211932, “Imperatives of Modular Refineries and Their Impact on Product Availability in Nigeria,” by Evelyn Bose Ekeinde and Adewale Dosunmu, SPE, Federal University Otuoke, and Diepiriye Chenaboso Okujagu, University of Port Harcourt, et al. The paper has not been peer reviewed. _ Nigeria is rich in crude oil, with a proven reserve of 37 billion bbl. Despite the abundance of this resource, Nigeria has lacked the capacity to meet the country’s demand for petroleum products locally and has resorted to their importation. Establishing conventional refineries is highly capital-intensive, and they take a significant amount of time to build and commission. The modular refinery option is a less capital-intensive alternative. The complete paper discusses the promise of modular refineries and their potential effects on the availability of petroleum products in Nigeria. Introduction Despite its large reserves of crude oil and a combined in-country refining capacity of 445,000 B/D from four state-owned refineries, Nigeria has been plagued with challenges in local refinement. These refineries have operated grossly below installed capacity for decades, operating at a capacity hovering between 15 and 25%. The inability to harness local refining to meet demands for petroleum products has turned Nigeria into a net importer. Modular Refineries A modular refinery is a processing plant composed entirely of skid-mounted structures, each of which comprises a part of the entire processing plant. Various components are connected through interstitial pipes to create a highly manageable process. They are smaller than conventional refineries, with processing capacities ranging from 1,000 to 30,000 B/D. Essentially, modular refineries are mini-refineries. Modular topping plants or crude distillation units are the most straightforward and cost-effective method of extracting valuable fuels from crude oil. Within 14 months of contract execution, a topping plant can be operational, providing host communities with vital fuels for automobiles, power generation, and job possibilities. Furthermore, construction of a modular refinery is less capital-intensive, ranging from $1 million to $15 million, compared with a conventional refinery, which could cost up to hundreds of millions or even billions of dollars, depending on the refinery’s complexity and configuration. Many configurations featuring different degrees of sophistication exist for modular mini-refineries. They include the following: - Atmospheric topping unit—This is an inexpensive distillation unit that can make diesel and kerosene from raw crude oil. Naphtha and fuel oil also can be byproducts. - Topping unit with gasoline train—This option features the addition of regenerative agents or hydrotherapy, thus producing high-octane unleaded gasoline and high-octane liquefied petroleum gas. This configuration can put together isomerization units to make more premium unleaded gasoline. It also can make more gasoline with a higher octane rating. - Vacuum distillation unit—The addition of a second distillation tower to separate the fuel components from the atmospheric tower results in clean heavy diesel (vacuum gas oil) and dirty heavy residual oil. - Hydrocracker unit, full conversion—The hydrocracker unit (which has a high capital cost) transforms light and heavy gas oils into more-marketable products with a lower boiling point. The yield of a hydrocracker unit may add to the profitability of a refinery.

Experimental investigation of effects of tertiary fuel on carbon deposition and emissions level of compression ignition engine

This study investigates the effect of increasing urbanization on the demand for petroleum products, which are limited natural resources. The study evaluated the use of biodiesel and clove oil as additives in diesel fuel to reduce carbon deposition on engine parts and noise emissions. Three fuel samples were tested: B30 (30 % biodiesel and 70 % diesel), clove oil at 3000 parts per million (PPM), and D100 diesel fuel. Endurance tests were conducted at a constant load and revolution per minute (RPM) to analyze carbon deposition on engine parts as well as noise emission levels at constant and variable RPM. It was found that biodiesel blended fuel had higher carbon deposition formation compared to diesel fuel, with a deposition rate of 77.48 % for B30 and 71.84 % for D100. In contrast, when clove oil was added to biodiesel, engine part deposition was decreased compared to diesel fuel, with a deposition rate of 47.71 % for clove oil. Furthermore, the study analyzed noise emissions at four positions (left, right, back, and top) using the three fuel samples. Clove oil showed lower noise emissions compared to diesel, indicating that it can help reduce noise pollution.

SWOT analysis of electric transport and V2G implementation for power system sustainable development in the terms of Ukraine

An analysis was carried out to examine the prospects for the integration of smart charging technologies, such as Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G), into the power system in Ukraine. The country is experiencing a growing concern regarding greenhouse gas emissions. The transport sector in Ukraine is one of the most energy-intensive sectors of the economy and contributes significantly to environmental degradation. The use of internal combustion engines in transport also increases the country’s dependence on imported fuel due to the high demand for petroleum products. The integration of electric transport and smart charging technologies, particularly V2G, is seen as a critical solution with immense potential to mitigate climate change. V2G technology is becoming increasingly relevant as the world transitions towards a more sustainable energy future. V2G refers to the bi-directional flow of energy between electric vehicles (EVs) and the grid. With V2G, EVs can not only consume energy from the grid but also supply energy back to the grid during peak demand periods, helping to stabilize the grid and increase its resilience. Therefore, it is imperative to develop a stable policy to promote these technologies and compare the features of the policy of integrating electric vehicles and the energy system in Ukraine. A qualitative strategic planning methodology, Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats (SWOT) analysis, was used to evaluate the diverse measures and initiatives related to electric transport development and infrastructure while integrating them into the power system. This analysis identified problems associated with the impact of EV charging on the power system, such as the inability to provide increased energy needs or limiting the EV charging infrastructure load. However, a high percentage of renewable energy sources, increased social awareness of climate change, and reduced prices of electric vehicles could provide the necessary opportunities for developing electric transport in Ukraine.

Sulfonamide Derivatives as Novel Surfactant/Alkaline Flooding Processes for Improving Oil Recovery.

Over time, oil consumption has increased along with a continuous demand for petroleum products that require finding ways to increase hydrocarbon production more economically and effectively. So, enhanced oil recovery technologies are believed to be very promising and will serve as a key to meeting the future energy demand. This paper aims to introduce an innovative method to boost the EOR by using two novel types of surfactants synthesized from sulfonamide derivatives. Types I and II surfactants were analyzed using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and their characterization was further performed using 1H NMR and 13C NMR spectroscopy. Additionally, the evaluation of these surfactants included interfacial tension measurements at concentrations up to 0.9 wt %. The combination of types I and II surfactants with alkaline (NaOH) was also investigated by the measurements of interfacial tension. A series of coreflood and sandpack tests under high-salinity conditions were carried out to assess the effects of a surfactant alone and alkaline-surfactant as a combination on improving oil recovery. The rock wettability was evaluated using relative permeability saturation curves, and the oil displacement efficiency was determined using fractional flow curves. The coreflood results demonstrated that alkaline-surfactant flooding with the chemical formula 0.2 wt % surfactant type II plus 0.5 wt % NaOH achieved a higher oil recovery of 74% OOIP compared to surfactant flooding with the chemical formula 0.5 wt % surfactant type II (64% OOIP) and waterflooding (saline solution with a 35,000 ppm salinity: 48% OOIP). Moreover, the experimental results showed that under both core and sandpack flood conditions, there was a noticeable reduction in oil-water interfacial tension, a change in rock wettability to more water-wet, and higher efficiency of oil displacement when alkaline was added to the surfactant. Based on current research, the alkaline-surfactant formulation is strongly recommended for chemical flooding because of its high efficacy and relatively low cost.

Development of the organizational structure of customs regulation of the export of petroleum products

The article reveals the main problems of the mechanism for customs regulation of the export of petroleum products: cancellation of export customs duties at the end of the «tax maneuver», dependence of export customs duties on gasoline and diesel fuel on the world oil price, the government does not take into account the ratio of world and domestic prices when determining the customs duty rate and the ratio of demand and supply of petroleum products in the domestic market to determine the need to apply measures of customs regulation of export, as well as the lack of a mechanism for applying non–tariff regulation measures. In this regard, the author identified the need to reform the mechanism for applying measures of customs regulation of the export of petroleum products. The author has developed an organizational and functional model of interaction between state authorities in establishing measures for customs regulation of the export of petroleum products, which will provide a regulatory, methodological and information basis for the implementation of the proposed mechanism.

Ambient-cured cardanol-derived polyurea coatings for anti-corrosive and anti-bacterial applications

Present work obviates the demand for petroleum products from the coating industry. The current study highlights the potential of bio-based precursor i.e., cardanol for synthesizing solventless coating systems for corrosion inhibition. Initially, prepolymer resin was synthesized from cardanol and was later reacted with toluene diisocyanate (TDI) in different wt% (10, 15, 20, and 25) to obtain an ambient cured polyurea (ACPUrea) resin. The structure of ACPUrea resin was confirmed with the help of FTIR and NMR spectral techniques. The impact of TDI percentage on the coating performance was evaluated in terms of curing behavior, standard phyisco-mechanical characteristics, thermal stability, and chemical resistance as well as wetting behavior. It reveals ACPUrea3 coatings performed better than their other counterparts and 20 wt% TDI is the optimal amount required to fabricate mechanically durable, thermally resistant (>250 °C), hydrophobic (contact angle: 138o), and chemically stable coatings. X-ray diffraction and field emission scanning electron microscopy techniques confirmed the amorphous nature and rough morphology of ACPUrea coating. The bactericidal activities of ACPUrea coatings were also evaluated by standard methods against various gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, no bacterial growth was observed on and underneath these coatings. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy suggested outstanding corrosion inhibition efficacy (82 %) of ACPUrea3 coating in harsh corrosive environments. Furthermore, the impedance value observed from the Nyquist plot was found to be steady throughout 15 days of immersion. The overall study emphasizes the utilization of cardanol for synthesizing polyurea coatings with higher thermal stability, excellent corrosion resistance, and strong bactericidal properties.

Impacts Analysis of Dual Carbon Target on the Medium- and Long-Term Petroleum Products Demand in China

Petroleum has become a strategic resource to the national economy, and forecasting its demand is a critical step to supporting energy planning and policy-making for carbon reduction. We first conducted a characteristic analysis of end consumption for petroleum products, and the key affecting factors are identified through an extended logarithmic mean Divisia index (LMDI) method. Afterwards, the long-range energy alternatives planning system (LEAP) was adopted to predict the petroleum products demand by considering the potential impacts of different policies on the identified key factors. Through comparative analysis of three scenarios including five sub-scenarios, the findings show that the dual carbon constraints are crucial to petroleum demand control. Under the enforcement of existing carbon peaking policies, the petroleum products demand will peak around 2043 at 731.5 million tons, and the impact of energy intensity-related policies is more significant than that of activity level. However, even if the existing policy efforts are continued, supporting the carbon-neutral target will not be easy. By further strengthening the constraints, the demand will peak around 2027 at 680 million tons, and the abatement contribution will come mainly from industry (manufacturing), construction, and transportation. Additional abatement technologies are necessary for the petroleum industry to achieve carbon neutrality.

STATE MARKET SUPERVISION OF THE QUALITY OF MOTOR FUELS, PROBLEMS AND WAYS TO SOLVE THEM

The quality of motor fuels during consumption is a guarantee of the reliability of the operation of vehicles, the efficiency of the operation of machines, mechanisms and other equipment. Considering the toxic, carcinogenic, fire, and explosive properties, motor fuels belong to extremely dangerous substances, non-food products with an increased degree of risk for all categories of consumers, regardless of the way and method of their use. In particular, waste gases of toxic substances during internal combustion pose a danger to the environment, human life and health.
 Proper control over the quality of motor fuels, making strategic management decisions for their safe circulation is the main component for the further development of the oil industry in Ukraine, ensuring the needs and satisfaction of consumers, the demand for petroleum products at the international level, in particular, the development of free trade.
 The article provides standards and requirements for the quality of motor fuels, reflects the results of examinations (tests) of automobile gasoline and diesel samples conducted in 2021. Possible causes of low-quality fuel are given and measures to overcome them are proposed. 196 samples of automobile gasoline and 111 samples of diesel fuel were selected for examinations (tests). According to the results of examinations (tests), non-compliance with the requirements of the Technical Regulation was found in 24.9% of automobile gasoline samples and in 19.8% of diesel fuel samples. One of the reasons for low-quality fuel is uncontrolled use of additives (dopes) by economic entities, improper internal control of fuel during mixing, including during storage, transportation and introduction of non-food products into circulation.
 It is also noted that one of the prerequisites for the creation of high-quality fuel on the market of Ukraine is the need to carry out measures to harmonize the current legislative acts, introduce changes or develop new normative documents in the field of quality and control of petroleum products, update state standards, conduct scientific research, and implementation of the requirements of the European Union into the current acts of Ukraine. In particular, an important aspect is the development of a chain of monitoring and control at various stages of the production cycle, processing (mixing), determining the expediency of using additives, dopes (dyes) to products, taking into account the physical and chemical properties of fuel, dynamic and mechanical indicators of vehicle engines.

SITUATION ANALYSIS OF ELECTRIC TRANSPORT DEVELOPMENT PROSPECTS AND ITS INTEGRATION INTO UKRAINIAN POWER SYSTEM

An analysis of the prospects for the development of electric transport and its integration into the energy system in the conditions of Ukraine was carried out using strategic planning methods. It was found that the transport sector in Ukraine has a significant impact on the environment, is one of the most energy-consuming sectors of the economy, and, in addition, transport with internal combustion engines is a significant factor in increasing dependence on imported fuel due to a steady and significant demand for petroleum products. Instead, it is electric transport and technologies for its interaction with the power system that are one of the key technologies that offer great potential for mitigating the effects of climate change. Thus, at the current stage, there is an urgent need to develop a stable policy of promoting these technologies, for which it is necessary to determine and compare the features of the policy of integration of electric vehicles and the energy system in the conditions of Ukraine. This study uses a qualitative strategic planning methodology using a Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats (SWOT) analysis to take into account as much as possible the multifaceted activities and initiatives related to the development of electric transport and its infrastructure while integrating them into the power system. The research conducted reveals problems related to the impact of electric vehicle charging on the power system, for example, the inability to provide for increased energy needs or to limit the electrical load of the electric vehicle charging infrastructure. On the other hand, a high percentage of the share of RES, increasing social awareness of climate change and lowering the prices of electric vehicles can provide the necessary opportunities for the development of electric transport in the conditions of Ukraine.

Environmentally Friendly Method for Enhanced Heavy Oil Recovery by In-Situ Upgrading Process Based on Catalytic Steam Injection

Any crude oil with an API gravity below 20 is considered heavy crude, and crude oil with an API gravity below 10 is considered extremely heavy. Conventional oil is lighter and less dense than unconventional oil resources such as heavy oil, extra-heavy oil, and bitumen. When the world’s conventional crude oil stocks are depleted, heavy oil resources will be well-positioned to continue satisfying demand for petroleum products. The economic viability of heavy oil depends on its quality being increased. The use of a catalytic steam injection in-situ upgrading technique to improve heavy oil recovery is discussed here. Previous research has shown that in-situ upgrading has a high catalytic ability to upgrade heavy crude oil by decreasing viscosity, increasing the amount of saturates (obviously low carbon number alkanes), and causing the thermal decomposition of high molecular weight substances such as asphaltenes and resin. There may be advantages to in-situ upgrading over more traditional methods of surface upgrading.

A METHODICAL APPROACH TO FORECASTING THE CONSUMPTION OF PETROLEUM PRODUCTS BY THEIR MAIN TYPES

The article presents the development of a mathematical model for forecasting the demand for petroleum products using a comprehensive method for forecasting the consumption of petroleum products by individual types. The mathematical model allows forecasting the consumption of petroleum products in the country (TOP-level) and types of economic activity (DOWN-level) for transportation and conversion into electrical and thermal energy. The purpose of the research is the development of a methodical approach to forecasting the consumption of petroleum products with the determination of the forecast structure of the consumption of petroleum products by types using a mathematical model of forecasting energy consumption using a comprehensive method. Determining forecast volumes by individual types of oil products gives a greater discrepancy between forecast and actual data than forecasting oil products together. The forecast volume of oil product consumption is calculated to draw up the country's forecast energy balance. The forecast is determined in two stages: 1) forecasting of the total volume of consumption of petroleum products by country and aggregated types of economic activity, 2) forecasting of the structure of consumption of petroleum products by their main types. This approach is due to the fact that the structure of petroleum fuel consumption changes significantly depending on the prices of fuel and vehicles. To forecast the consumption of the main types of petroleum products, an analysis of statistical data for the retrospective period was used and the trends of their consumption were taken into account, as well as the realities of today: the war on the territory of Ukraine, the destruction of the industrial and energy infrastructure, which will require restoration for a long time. The provided forecasts will make it possible to assess the country’s need for certain types of petroleum fuel, to determine the sufficient volumes of own production and the necessary volumes of oil product imports. Bibl. 32, Tab. 3.

Forecasting methodology with structural auto-adaptive intelligent grey models

Accurate mid- and long-term petroleum products (PP) consumption forecasting is vital for strategic reserve management and energy planning. In order to address the issue of energy forecasting, a novel structural auto-adaptive intelligent grey model (SAIGM) is developed in this paper. To start with, a novel time response function for predictions that corrects the main weaknesses of the traditional grey model is established. Then, the optimal parameter values are calculated using SAIGM to increase adaptability and flexibility to deal with a variety of forecasting dilemmas. The viability and performance of SAIGM are examined with both ideal and real-world data. The former is constructed from algebraic series while the latter is made up Cameroon's PP consumption data. With its ingrained structural flexibility, SAIGM yields forecasts with RMSE of 3.10 and 1.54% MAPE. The proposed model performs better than competing intelligent grey systems that have been developed to date and is thus a valid forecasting tool that can be used to track the growth of Cameroon's PP demand.•The ability of SAIGM enhances the forecasting power of intelligent grey models to fully extracting the laws of a system, no matter the data specifications.•SAIGM is extended to include quasi-exponential series by addressing structural flexibility and parametrization concerns.•Input attributes determination and data preprocessing are not required for the proposed model.

Design and Fabrication of Solar electric bicycle

The demand for petroleum products is at an all-time high right now due to the expanding number of cars. Because petroleum is not renewable and will eventually run out, switching to alternative energy sources is preferable. The price of crude oil has skyrocketed in recent years, and it appears there is no stopping it. The environment has recently attracted attention, and it appears that cleaner fuel options are in high demand. The hybrid bicycle is a project that can help reduce reliance on oil and promote cleaner technology. An electric bicycle is a low-cost alternative to a car. Dynamo power and solar energy are used to charge the battery. When there is no sunlight, the battery can be recharged by an electric source.

Crude Oil Price, Monetary Policy and Output: The Case of Pakistan

Rapid rises in the prices of crude oil in the decade of 2000s have raised concerns among policy-makers around the world, as the theoretical and empirical literature has established that oil price shocks may have an adverse impact on the macro economy of the country. In particular, for the oil importing developing countries like Pakistan, this upward trend in the price of oil can have serious repercussions in terms of creating inflationary pressures in the economy, increasing budget deficit and balance of payment problems, and thus affecting the GDP growth. Pakistan was on the path of rising GDP growth in the first seven years of this decade. But in the year 2007-08, the situation has changed. This oil price shock could possibly be one of the reasons. As an impact of rising growth rate of GDP, demand for energy has also gone up rapidly in this period. In the energy mix for the year 2005-06, oil accounts for 32 percent of the total energy used in Pakistan, and it is the second largest source of energy used after natural gas, which accounts for 39 percent. With oil being the second largest source of energy used along with almost constant rate of its production Pakistan is heavily dependent on oil imports from Middle East exporters (Saudi Arab playing the lead role). Almost 82 percent of the demand for petroleum products in the country is met through imports.1 Pakistan spent about 44 percent of export earnings on oil imports in 2006-07. This percentage was only 27 percent in 2004-05. Therefore, the international oil price increase has a direct impact on the macro economy of the country, especially on the oil price GDP relationship. The share of net oil imports in GDP is an indicator of the relative importance of the oil price rise to the economy in terms of the potential adjustments needed to offset it. For Pakistan over the last few years, this ratio has risen from 3.13 in 1990-91 to -5.24 in 2005-06 [Malik (2007)]. With such a high ratio, unless country is running in surplus, or has extremely large foreign exchange reserves, high oil price is dealt by severe macro economic adjustments.

Recent Patents on Petroleum Pipe Inspection Gauge in China

Background: As the demand for petroleum products grows, pipes to carry these products are also required extensively. Consequently, petroleum pipe blockage has become a frequent and severe problem in China. In order to ensure trouble-free operation, it is necessary to clean and inspect the petroleum pipe regularly. However, currently available petroleum pipe inspection gauges can block the petroleum pipe easily, and their cleaning efficiency is not as high as desired. Therefore, mechanisms to prevent pipe blockage and ensure high-efficiency cleaning are being given much importance in studies on petroleum pipe inspection gauges. Objective: The aim of the study is to review recent patents related to petroleum pipe inspection gauges in China and forecast possible designs that can mitigate present-day problems associated with petroleum pipe inspection gauges. Methods: This paper has studied and compared various representative patents relevant to the petroleum pipe inspection gauge. Results: A large number of patents filed in China related to petroleum pipe inspection gauges have been studied and the anti-blocking mechanism as well as the cleaning efficiency of the petroleum pipe inspection gauges described in those patents have been analyzed and compared. Forecasts were made regarding the possible development trajectories in the design of petroleum pipe inspection gauges. Conclusion: The problems of easy blockage and poor cleaning efficiency are yet unsolved for petroleum pipe inspection gauges. It is expected that future work will focus on the development of pigging, new materials, power sources, and intelligent control to resolve these issues.

Optimal Allocation of Future Oil Production under Uncertainty: Lessons from Nigeria for Emerging Oil Producing Countries

Under the uncertainties presented by future upstream oil production, increasing domestic demand for petroleum products, volatile energy prices, a build-out of domestic refining capacity, and a global energy transition underway, this paper seeks an optimal allocation of Nigeria's projected oil production under scenarios representing possible versions of the future. Using the Reference Energy System developed by Gbakon et al. (2021) for crude oil utilization through a network of possible end-uses, the framework is tested under different scenarios. Furthermore, the framework is coupled to a Monte Carlo formulation of the problem, which allows greater flexibility in addressing questions of the likelihood of attaining desirable policy outcomes such as petroleum product self-sufficiency. Within this solution structure, a family of curves is generated, which represents the spread of outcomes. Scenario analysis, for example, shows that under 'Energy Transition' scenario, oil export ratio declines from 43% in 2025 to 6% in 2040. Whereas, under the 'Business-as-Usual' scenario, the oil export ratio declines from 37% in 2025 to 0% in 2034, with clear consequences for foreign exchange earnings. While under the ‘Stated Policy' scenario oil export ratio declines from 60% in 2025 to 54% in 2040. Implications for net system benefits and the respective drivers are further interrogated.

A review on novel and hybrid/integrated reactor configurations for the removal of recalcitrant organics from petroleum refinery wastewater

AbstractOwing to the high demand of petroleum and petrochemical products, refineries, among the many industries that are set up worldwide, are of special importance. Wastewater generated from such industrial activities, however, contains toxic compounds that are of environmental concern. Due to the presence of highly recalcitrant organics present in refinery wastewater, treatment prior to its discharge into the environment and water bodies in order to meet certain acceptable discharge limits is imperative. Petroleum refineries unavoidably discharge a large volume of wastewater mainly with high chemical oxygen demand (COD). Low‐cost biological wastewater treatment methods are reported to show excellent COD removal efficiency from wastewater but have their own drawbacks. Hence, advanced integrated approaches are of new interest in this field. This review focuses on emerging technologies, in particular bioreactor configurations for petroleum wastewater treatment. It further discusses some future perspective in hybrid/integrated systems for treating PRWW.