Honey bee (Apis mellifera L.) toxicology research is crucial to understanding the risks of different chemicals and for finding new compounds to decrease pests and pathogens in honey bee colonies. However, the results of toxicological studies are not always consistent. In this study, we tested compounds from 7 chemical classes to compare topical LD50 values for honey bees that were reared in the winter versus honey bees that were reared in the spring. The compounds included acetamiprid, amitraz, coumaphos, fipronil, fluvalinate, indoxacarb, and hydramethylnon, all of which are periodically used by beekeepers to control honey bee pests. Fluvalinate was 4× more toxic in the spring than in the winter. Conversely, acetamiprid, amitraz, coumaphos, fipronil, and indoxacarb were all more toxic in the winter than the spring by 37×, 7×, >87×, 6×, and 4×, respectively. Coumaphos had the highest discrepancy between the seasons, while hydramethylnon was not significantly different between winter and spring. Overall, our results suggest that toxicology research on honey bees should be accounting for seasonal variation in the honey bees they are testing. The honey bee's susceptibility to each compound may change depending on what time of year they are collected and is unique to each chemical class being tested. This work provides evidence that honey bee susceptibility to pesticides needs to be evaluated in the context of season in future research to properly evaluate their impact on honey bee health.

Varroa destructor is a significant European honeybee pest, impacting agricultural industries globally. Since arriving in 2022, Australia faces the possibility that Varroa will become established in European honeybee colonies nationally. Australia initially pursued a strategy of testing and subsequently eliminating hives infested with Varroa. These management efforts raise interesting questions about the interplay between hive testing and elimination, and the spread of Varroa between hives. This study uses mathematical modelling to investigate how combined hive testing and elimination strategies impact the spread of Varroa through a network of European honeybee hives. We develop a model of both within-hive reproduction of Varroa and hive testing, and between-hive movement of Varroa on a network of hives. This model is used to assess the impact of various testing and hive elimination strategies on the total number of hives eliminated on the network of hives. Each model simulation starts with a single infested hive, and from this we observed one of two dynamics: either the infestation is caught before spreading, or Varroa spreads extensively through the network before being caught by testing. Within our model we implement two common hive testing methods - sugar shake and alcohol testing. A shared limitation of these testing methods is that they can only detect mites in a specific stage of their lifecycle. As such, testing is not only dependent on how many Varroa mites are in a hive, but also on what lifecycle stage the mites are in at the time of testing. By varying testing and movement parameters, we see that this testing limitation greatly impacts the number of hives eliminated in various scenarios. Furthermore, testing earlier, or testing more frequently, does not guarantee a smaller invasion. Our model results suggest irregular testing schedules, e.g. testing multiple times in close succession rather than just once in a given timeframe, may help overcome the limitations of common hive testing strategies.

Small hive beetle (Aethina tumida Murray) is a cosmopolitan pest of honey bees. Adult and larval beetles live in the hive, feeding on honey, pollen, and brood, but pupate in soil. A. tumida control is heavily reliant on insecticides, which are applied to in-hive beetle traps or as a soil drench. Here we describe laboratory trials investigating a novel insecticide, synthetic amorphous silica (SAS), for A. tumida control both in traps and as a soil treatment. SAS is a manufactured insecticidal silica dioxide dust capable of adhering to surfaces through electrostatic forces, allowing for low rate applications to vertical and sloped surfaces with low risk of pesticide escape into the hive. When applied to beetle traps, SAS significantly reduced adult beetle escape from traps and induced 100% mortality in larvae and 99% mortality in adults within 48 h. In soil trials, SAS was found to provide only a modest reduction in A. tumida pupation success when applied at the highest rate, 2.5 g SAS/kg soil. However, SAS did significantly reduce the lifespan of eclosed adult beetles at rates as low as 0.25 g SAS per kg of soil. Our work found that SAS is an effective insecticide for in-hive traps, and significantly reduces adult lifespan when applied as a soil treatment, suggesting the chemical would be a useful addition to the A. tumida IPM toolbox.

Western honey bees host a suite of pests and pathogens that compromise individual bee and whole colony health. The utility of formal reports conveying data concerning honey bee pests and pathogens is often limited by inconsistencies in the technical information documented and provided. Here, we outline best practices for data stewardship, from field to publication, that one should follow when discussing honey bee pests and pathogens in formal reports. Including this information will improve the utility of formal reports in which biotic threats to honey bees are discussed.

Apiculture features strongly in international development programs seeking to stimulate sustainable economic development in low- and middle-income countries. However, the sustained long-term impact of these programs is seldom reported, and rates of attrition amongst beekeeping adopters remain high. Despite the history and prevalence of beekeeping industries and rapidly increasing investments in the Pacific region, very little is known about the status of the apiculture sector. This study used face-to-face key informant interviews and value chain analysis in 2023 to provide an overview of the size and scope of the beekeeping industry in the Solomon Islands. While historically strong per-hive honey yields supported substantial domestic production and export, and current demand and retail prices are high, this research reveals the beekeeping industry to be in significant decline. Since 1990, the number of bee hives, total honey production and beekeepers has decreased by 42%, 84% and 51%, respectively. The farmgate value of honey was estimated to be SBD $1.875 m per annum. Major impediments to the development of the beekeeping industry include limited research, development, and extension services, limited succession planning; undiagnosed honey bee pests, insufficient access to consistent, outcome-based training; high start-up costs; and the impacts of climate change. This research highlights the need for more targeted and strategic approaches and investments in the apiculture sector – in the Pacific region and more broadly in low and middle-income countries – to diagnose and address root causes of constrained sector development to appropriately support the development of viable and economic and livelihood opportunities.

Entomopathogenic nematode performance in three honey bee pests: small hive beetle, greater and lesser wax moths

Genetic sampling from European honeybee (Apis mellifera) hives is a promising repository of terrestrial environmental nucleic acids (eNA) from a range of taxonomic sources. eNA samples from honeybee hives can be used to monitor environments via vegetation assessments and plant pathogen detection, while simultaneously assessing honeybee hive health through the identification of honeybee pests and pathogens. However, there is still limited comparison across the different types of hive samples commonly used for biomonitoring. There is also a need for less invasive sampling methods to facilitate adoption of hive eNA surveillance at scale. The aim of this study was to compare the effectiveness of using non-invasive swabbing of hive entrances with common sample types collected from honeybee hives (honey, pollen, and bees) for eNA detection of various taxa. Using a DNA metabarcoding approach for bacteria (16S), animal (COI), fungi (ITS1), and plant (ITS2) identification, and metatranscriptomic sequencing for virus detection, swabbing was found to provide comparable or better detection of taxa compared with more invasive sampling methods. Swabs were most informative for identifying bacterial and fungal communities, while plant detections were similar between swabs and honey samples. Detection of RNA viral diversity was highest in honey samples, however, swabs also showed good recovery of plant and insect viruses. A minimum of two swab replicates was recommended to increase taxa yield for DNA metabarcoding. Our study suggests that swabbing of hive entrances is a highly effective biomonitoring method for non-invasively collecting hive eNA and delivering comprehensive surveillance for animal, plant and microbial communities in the environment.

Galleria mellonella (L.) is a destructive insect pest of honeybees. G. mellonella (L.) is widely used in research, microbiology assays, as pet food and host for biological control agents. Larvae of G. mellonella were collected from the main campus, BUAT, Banda, U. P. during 2024 and reared on natural and artificial diet under controlled conditions at 32 ± 2°C and 65 ± 2% R.H. There were 30 observations (3x10) for biological studies and 10 observations for morphometric observation. The mean incubation period was slightly shorter on the natural diet (7.30 days) compared to the artificial diet (7.40 days). Similarly, the total larval duration was reduced on the natural diet (31.55 days) as opposed to the artificial diet (42.89 days). Thus, the overall developmental period of the immature stages was also comparatively shorter on the natural diet (48.91 days) than on the artificial diet (63.45 days). Adult longevity of both sexes was higher on the natural diet (22.83 days) for males and (15.76 days) for females, compared to (16.00 and 12.37), respectively, on the artificial diet. The total life cycle of males and females was shorter on the natural diet (71.75 and 64.67 days) compared to the artificial diet (79.78 and 75.81 days). The survival rate of eggs, larvae and pupa were recorded higher on the natural diet (88.06, 91.67 and 92.91%) respectively compared to artificial diet (84.49, 89.39 and 88.42%). The morphometric observations of different stages of G. mellonella were also recorded on natural as well as artificial diet

The devastating honey bee (Apis mellifera) pest, Varroa destructor, has developed resistance to commonly used synthetic acaricides, such as amitraz, tau-fluvalinate, and coumaphos. To find new active ingredients that may be useful in reducing V. destructor populations in honey bee colonies, we examined the acute toxicity of isoxazoline insecticides that are toxic to ectoparasites, such as ticks and fleas. Here, we evaluated the toxicity of afoxolaner, fluralaner, sarolaner, and lotilaner to V. destructor and honey bees using direct application methods. Fluralaner (median lethal dose (LD50) = 0.07 ng/V. destructor) was the most toxic isoxazoline insecticide and only 2× less toxic than amitraz (0.04 ng/V. destructor), but 25,600× more toxic than coumaphos (1789 ng/V. destructor). Sarolaner (selectivity ratio = 0.3) was much more toxic to honey bees than to V. destructor, while afoxolaner toxicity was equal to mites and bees. Fluralaner and lotilaner were 123× and 2× more toxic to V. destructor than to honey bees. In addition to describing isoxazolines as a putative chemical class to control V. destructor, we tested the potency of fluralaner against the firing frequency of V. destructor central neurons. Exposure to 30 μm fluralaner led to reversal of GABA inhibition with a significant increase of nerve firing when compared to GABA firing rates. These data suggest that fluralaner represents a potential candidate for V. destructor control in colonies due to its high toxicity to V. destructor and its relatively low toxicity to honey bees. Additionally, methodological details for electrophysiological recordings on V. destructor central nervous system (CNS) firing rates can be used to advance the development of new miticides. © 2025 Society of Chemical Industry.

The Small Hive Beetle (SHB) Aethina tumida Murray, 1867(Coleoptera: Nitidulidae) a pest of honey bees, is reported from colonies of European honeybees, Apis mellifera Linnaeus in Bapatla, Andhra Pradesh. Larvae cause enormous damage to the hives, digging tunnels among the cells of the honeycomb to feed on pollen, honey and bee brood. The SHB larvae caused 80 per cent damage to the bee colonies present in Burlavaripalem by feeding bee wax and pupae of bees, ultimately led to destroy entire colonies as well as stored unextracted honeycombs. The finding is important, as it poses a serious threat to Apis mellifera colonies by damaging combs, honey and weakening colony and health. Early detection and reporting of such invasive species are critical for implementing timely management strategies.

A comprehensive survey was conducted across all districts of Himachal Pradesh to investigate the status of beekeeping, pests of honey bees especially predatory wasps and management practices of beekeepers against them. Special emphasis was placed on the distribution and impact of different species of predatory wasps on honey bee colonies of both species Apis mellifera and A. cerana across the state. Interviews with beekeepers were conducted using a well structured questionnaire across the state to assess colony losses, pest distribution, and local management techniques used against the predatory wasps. The results suggested that middle-aged individuals (40–60 years) dominated the beekeeping sector, while the youth and old age individuals remained underrepresented. Most sampled beekeepers were trained and possessed 10–20 years of experience. Four species of predatory wasps, namely: viz. Vespa mandarinia Smith, Vespa tropica Vecht., Vespa auraria Smith and Vespa basalis Smith were recorded predating the apiaries of honey bees across the state, with average colony losses due to wasp attack estimated at 14.58%. Common local management techniques used by beekeepers included flapping, destruction of nest, bottle traps, and queen killing. The results of this study emphasize the significant impact of predatory wasps on the health and productivity of apiculture in Himachal Pradesh, indicating the need for effective control measures and capacity building among young and new beekeepers for developing and boosting the apiculture sector in Himachal Pradesh.

Varroa mites, the main pest of honey bees, are notoriously difficult to control. We present a novel approach to mite management emphasising the role of immigration. We argue that how mite numbers increase within the colony determines the most effective varroa management techniques. That is, varroa infestations go through phases, where their rate of increase is either driven by varroa reproduction (Chronic phase) or is strongly influenced by immigration into the hive (Acute phase). Identifying chronic and acute phases will enable current varroa control methods to be better targeted. For example, control methods reducing reproduction rates will be most effective during the chronic phase. Identifying when immigration is important to varroa in-hive population increases (acute phase) may enable existing bee management techniques, for example, those that limit the access of some bees into hives, to be co-opted into varroa management. This change in perspective emphasises that in-hive varroa control will be improved by understanding the subtleties of how and when varroa enter hives; it will also identify other gaps in our knowledge of varroa's behavioural ecology that could lead to new varroa control methods. Therefore, this novel approach to mite management will enable Integrated Pest Management to be better tailored to this pest.

There are several parasitic flies capable of infecting honey bees, resulting in significant economic losses. One such fly is Senotainia tricuspis, which has been documented in several countries within the Mediterranean region. The potential for these flies to expand their range into more areas across Europe and Africa, particularly in response to climate change over the coming years, remains unstudied. In this study, maximum entropy modeling using Maxent and six temperature variables were employed to address this gap. The model exhibited strong performance, as indicated by output parameters, with both test and training data showing an area under the curve close to 1. The current distribution closely mirrored the actual prevalence of S. tricuspis in the Mediterranean region. Future prevalence projections for 2050 and 2070, based on two Shared Socio-economic Pathways (SSP 126 and SSP 585), illustrated a high likelihood of S. tricuspis occurrence in southern Europe, North Africa spanning from Egypt to Morocco, and the Levant. However, the study did not find support for the wide invasion of Central and Southern African countries by this fly, except for specific areas in Madagascar and South parts of Africa. The study delved into the roles of the environmental variables in influencing S. tricuspis prevalence and discussed potential implications for beekeeping.

Currently, there is no integrated pest management approach for controlling small hive beetles (Aethina tumida), a widespread honey bee (Apis mellifera) pest. To date, only hive trapping has shown any effectiveness in controlling the pest. In this study, we tested several possible active ingredients that have been shown previously to demonstrate low toxicity towards honey bees. To test their toxicities, we treated both SHBs and honey bees topically and exposed SHBs to these compounds orally via pollen. Coumaphos (industry standard), a solvent control (acetone), and a positive control (dimethoate) were used for comparisons. Thiacloprid (LD50 = 1.3 ng/SHB; LC50 = 12 µg/g pollen) was the most toxic active ingredient tested against SHBs both topically and through pollen. Topically, thiacloprid was 340× more toxic to SHBs than coumaphos (LD50 = 431 ng/SHB). However, acetamiprid (selectivity ratio = 152) was much more toxic to SHBs than to honey bees compared to thiacloprid (selectivity ratio = 3). These findings demonstrate the need to find other active ingredients other than coumaphos and that acetamiprid has the greatest potential to reduce SHB populations safely in a honey bee hive. Field research using acetamiprid should be conducted to explore possible sub-lethal effects on honey bees.

Double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) biopesticides offer the potential for highly targeted pest control with minimal off-target impacts. Varroa mites (Varroa destructor) are an important pest of honey bees (Apis mellifera) that are primarily managed by synthetic pesticides. A next-generation treatment using a varroa-active dsRNA, vadescana, has been developed to target calmodulin expression in varroa. We evaluated the potential exposure of non-target species to vadescana. First, we assessed potential gene silencing effects on 39 arthropods with known genomes via bioinformatics. Three mite species, monarch butterflies (Danaus plexippus), fruit flies (Drosophila melanogaster), and European earwigs (Forficula auricularia) showed theoretical potential for off-target effects. These in silico results could be used to help inform risk assessments. Second, we conducted vadescana feeding trials on the greater wax moth (Galleria mellonella), a common beehive associate. There were no significant differences in wax moth reproduction, survival, or adult F2 wing length between vadescana-fed and control groups. Male F2 body weight was slightly but significantly lower in wax moths exposed to the highest vadescana dose, with no such effect observed in female moths. Calmodulin gene expression was unaffected in wax moths. Our hazard assessment of vadescana's lethal and sublethal effects on wax moths indicates minimal impact following continuous dietary exposure far greater than any exposure that might be expected in the field, in line with the bioinformatics findings. This biopesticide appears highly varroa-specific and likely has fewer non-target effects than many current varroa control methods.

Royal jelly (RJ) is a glandular secretion fed to developing honey bee larvae by adult worker bees. It is also a potential source of disease transmission in and between honey bee colonies. We endeavored to characterize the microbiome, virome, and other biota present in RJ via an integrated meta-omics approach. Using a magnetic beads-based extraction protocol, we identified eDNA and eRNA fragments from organisms of interest in RJ using high-throughput metagenomics (DNA-seq), metatranscriptomics (total RNA-seq), and parallel sequencing. This allowed us to enhance the detection of Operational Taxonomic Units (OTUs) undetectable by standard 'omics or amplicon protocols'. Using this integrated approach, we detected OTUs present in RJ from honey bee pests and pathogens, including Melissococcus plutonius, Paenibacillus larvae, Varroa destructor, V. jacobsoni, Aethina tumida, Galleria mellonella, Vairimorpha ceranae, Apis mellifera filamentous virus, Black queen cell virus, Acute bee paralysis virus, Sacbrood virus, Deformed wing virus, Israeli acute bee paralysis virus, Kashmir bee virus, and Slow bee paralysis virus, as well as multiple beneficial gut bacteria from the genera Lactobacillus, Actinobacteria, and Gluconobacter. The presence of DNA and RNA from these organisms does not conclusively indicate the presence of live organisms in the RJ, but it does suggest some exposure of the RJ to these organisms. The results present a comprehensive eDNA and eRNA microbial profile of RJ, demonstrating that our novel method is an effective and sensitive molecular tool for high-resolution metagenomic and metatranscriptomic profiling, and is of value for detection of pathogens of concern for the beekeeping industry.

The Varroa destructor (hereafter referred to as Varroa) is a major pest of honeybees that is generally controlled using pyrethroid-based acaricides. However, resistance to these insecticides has become a growing problem, driven by the acquisition of knockdown resistance (kdr) mutations in the mite’s voltage-gated sodium channel (vgsc) gene. Resistance mutations in the vgsc gene, such as the L925V mutation, can confer resistance to pyrethroids like flumethrin and tau-fluvalinate. Monitoring genotypic resistance through molecular mutation screening is crucial for tracking and mitigating resistance spread. In this study, the frequency of resistance mutations in the vgsc was examined using a Polymerase Chain Reaction-Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) approach in Varroa populations sampled throughout the Mediterranean, Aegean, and Black Sea regions of Türkiye. Considering all the samples analyzed, the results demonstrated a mean resistance allele frequency of 83.29%, indicating a relatively high frequency of resistant alleles. We observed 94.58%, 85.71%, and 69.58% resistant allele frequencies in populations sampled from the Mediterranean, Aegean, and Black Sea regions, respectively, in our study. The results of our investigation demonstrated substantial regional variations in the frequencies of resistant alleles among Varroa populations throughout Türkiye, with notably elevated resistance levels observed in the Mediterranean and Aegean regions. Due to the significant resistance mutation frequency differences between both provinces and regions, long-term monitoring of resistance alleles and the planning of regional control strategies are required for effective control of this pest.

BackgroundThe mite Varroa destructor is the most serious pest of the western honey bee (Apis mellifera) and a major factor in the global decline of colonies. Traditional control methods, such as chemical pesticides, although quick and temporarily effective, leave residues in hive products, harming bees and operators’ health, while promoting pathogen resistance and spread. As a sustainable alternative, RNA interference (RNAi) technology has shown great potential for honey bee pest control in laboratory assays, but evidence of effectiveness in the field has been lacking.MethodsWe investigated the efficacy and feasibility of a RNAi treatment to improve bee health under natural beekeeping conditions by integrating a honey bee diet with a mixture of dsRNA targeting V. destructor acetyl-CoA carboxylase, Na+/K+ ATPase and endochitinase genes.ResultsIn treated hives, we observed that the average infestation rate of phoretic Varroa mite was reduced by 33% and 42% relative to control bees fed with sucrose and GFP-dsRNA, respectively. The dsRNA treatment did not affect bee survival, and the beekeepers involved in the project found the method manageable in the apiary and non-intrusive to production activities.ConclusionsOur findings demonstrate the feasibility and effectiveness of RNAi technology in reducing Varroa mite infestations under natural rearing conditions. This study supports the potential of RNAi as a promising alternative to chemical pesticides, offering a targeted, efficient and sustainable solution for managing V. destructor in honey bee populations.Graphical

Apiculture is an intergral part of agricultural activity practiced to produces hive products such as honey and beeswax. The honeybees are the best pollinator which enhace crop productivity. Common pest and disease that affect honeybee with their controlling mechanism was the main objective of this review. The bees are susceptible to a number of insect pest’s types that will adversely affect the productivity of the bee colony to a significant level. Varroa destructor, Nosema ceranae, Nocema Apis, Acarapis woodi, small wax moths, Bee lice, Ants and Wax moth are the most economically important honeybee pest and disease types. To control pest and diseae different controlling mechanism are are used at different areas of the country. Nonchemical approaches in integrated pest management (IPM), traditional method and biological control are the prevention strategies. This overview forms the basis to realize the importance of pest management in bee husbandry practices, thus affecting the resilience and productivity of honeybee populations.

Introduction: The small hive beetle (Aethina tumida Murray, 1867), a parasitic pest of honey bee (Apis mellifera) colonies, threatens global beekeeping, particularly in warm, humid regions. Native to sub-Saharan Africa, it has spread globally since 1996, causing economic losses through brood damage, honey fermentation, and colony collapse. Its adaptability and role as a potential pathogen vector highlight the need to study its biology and control. The Goal of the Work: To analyze the biology, global spread, economic impact, and control strategies for A. tumida based on current literature and epizootic data to inform beekeeping practices. Materials and Methods of Research: Retrospective analysis used data from the OIE Terrestrial Animal Health Code (2018), OIE Manual of Diagnostic Tests (2018), and WAHIS reports. Methods included morphological identification, PCR testing, and field monitoring with traps (corrugated cardboard, oil-based). Samples were collected from hives and soil, preserved in 70% ethanol or at –20°C. Results of Research and Discussion: A. tumida adults are 5–7 mm, with short elytra and club-shaped antennae. Eggs (1–1.5 mm) hatch in 1–6 days, larvae (up to 10 mm) develop in 8–29 days, and pupae (5 mm) form in soil for 2–12 weeks. Feeding on honey, pollen, and brood, the beetle causes significant damage in warm climates (>24°C, >50% humidity). It has spread to the USA (1996), Australia (2002), Europe (2014), and Latin America (2023), with losses exceeding $30 million annually in the USA. In Ukraine, * desembrioid beetle is absent but at risk due to imports. Diagnostics (visual inspection: 85–98% accuracy; PCR: 100 % specificity) are effective but require expertise. Control includes mechanical traps, chemical treatments (permethrin), and biological agents (nematodes, 80–90 % efficacy). Quarantine and hive hygiene are key for prevention. Conclusions and Prospects for Further Research: A. tumida is a major threat to beekeeping due to its adaptability and economic impact. Ukraine must enhance veterinary controls and beekeeper training to prevent its introduction. Future research should focus on biological controls (e.g., nematodes, fungi) and region-specific diagnostics to mitigate its spread.