Development of resistance and the accumulation of pesticide residues in food and the environment are the main obstacles to the overuse of synthetic insecticides. In this context, the insecticidal activity of environmentally sustainable and nontoxic essential oils (EO), clove (Syzygium aromaticum), citronella (Cymbopogon nardus), lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus), and eucalyptus (Eucalyptus globulus) evaluated against second and fourth instars of Spodoptera littoralis (Boisd.) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) and third instar of Spodoptera frugiperda (J.E. Smith, 1797) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) under laboratory conditions. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry used to determine the chemical composition of the EO. After 24 h of exposure, the most larvicidal potency and developmental inhibition were achieved by clove, wherein the LC50s were 3.62% and 3.82% against second and fourth instars of S. littoralis, respectively, and 2.33% against S. frugiperda. Then followed by lemongrass with LC50 of 6.38 and 12.03% against the second and fourth instars of S. littoralis, respectively, while citronella showed LC50 of 4.76% against S. frugiperda. Biochemical assays indicated that AChE activity differed according to oil type and tested instar. GST and alpha-esterase activities were slightly inhibited in all treatments. The oils significantly inhibited amylase activity. Eucalyptus and lemongrass stimulated lipase activity, while clove and citronella oils demonstrated the lowest activity. Molecular docking studies illustrated the mode of action of the tested oils against S. littoralis and S. frugiperda. The EOs had significant insecticidal and biochemical effects against the examined lepidopterans; therefore, they may be used as a botanical alternative for controlling these pests.

Determination of fluorinated pesticides in food products: Current advancements and prospective challenges.

CRISPR/Cas12a-mediated electrochemiluminescent biosensor integrating Ag modified Co-doped metal-organic frameworks for dual detection of malathion and phorate.

Food pesticide residue is a significant health issue affecting the population of developing nations, including Bangladesh. Nevertheless, there is minimal literature on the report of pesticide residues of commonly used pesticides in seasonal leafy vegetables in the North Bengal area. As such this study was meant to identify pesticide residues in raw leafy vegetables through Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. Three frequently consumed leafy vegetables were collected and analyzed, including Indian spinach, spinach, and stem amaranth. Overall, four pesticides have been observed in the three types of vegetables (two insecticides and two fungicides) depending on the characteristic absorption peaks in the FTIR spectra. These compounds were thiamethoxam, carbendazim, mancozeb+metalaxyl, and dimethoate. These pesticide residues likely cause food safety and health-related challenges to the population. To minimize the potential health risks, increased monitoring of pesticide residues in the vegetables and promotion of integrated pest management (IPM) approach with trainings the farmers on safe handling of pesticides are recommended.

Surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) technology, with its molecular fingerprint recognition, high sensitivity, rapid detection, and non-destructive analysis, has become a key research direction in the detection of pesticide residues in food. However, critical challenges remain, including poor uniformity, insufficient stability, and difficulty in large-scale fabrication of SERS substrates, as well as interference from complex food matrices that affects detection accuracy. This review systematically summarizes the most commonly used preparation and optimization strategies for SERS substrates, which provides theoretical support and practical references for the rational design of SERS substrates, the improvement of fabrication processes, and the development of anti-interference algorithms. Furthermore, focusing on the detection advances (2020-present) of four typical classes of pesticide residues (organophosphorus, benzimidazole, neonicotinoid, and carbamate) in food, this review elaborates on the core SERS detection principles, technical advantages, practical limitations, and corresponding solution strategies. This work clarifies the research advances and technical challenges of SERS in the detection of pesticide residue in food, offering clear guidance and references for improving the technical framework and promoting future research in this field.

Under European Union legislation (Article 32, Regulation (EC) No 396/2005), the European Food Safety Authority publishes an annual report assessing pesticide residue levels in food. In 2024, 9842 samples were analysed as part of the EU-coordinated multiannual control programme subset, of which 1.2% were found to be non-compliant. National sampling procedures were used in 86,449 samples where the non-compliant rate was 1.8%. Increased import control programme accounted for 39,433 samples with a 3.6% non-compliant rate. Acute and chronic dietary exposure was estimated by providing the probabilities of exceeding the health-based guidance values (HBGV) for the pesticide residues in food. Overall, the estimated dietary risk was found to be low for most of the EU subpopulation groups and assessed substances. Recommendations are provided to risk managers to increase the effectiveness of European control systems and to ensure a high level of consumer protection throughout the EU.

Abstract In accordance with Article 31 of Regulation (EC) No 396/2005, European Union Member States provide the European Food Safety Authority with the results of their official controls on pesticide residues in food. The Member States, Iceland and Norway provided further information in the form of explanatory text outlining the main findings of their control activities during the reference year. This technical report is a compilation of those contributions.

Pesticide residues in food remain a major threat to human health and ecosystems, yet routine monitoring still relies on centralized, multistep analytical workflows which are poorly suited to rapid and field-deployable detection. In this work, we introduce a rationally designed hexagonal honeycomb metal-insulator-metal (MIM) plasmonic metasurface which functions as a robust, wafer-scale surface/plasmon-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) platform for pesticide quantification in real food matrices. The MIM honeycomb architecture simultaneously creates highly concentrated electromagnetic hotspots at the excitation wavelength and a plasmonic antenna effect that radiates the Stokes-shifted Raman signals back, effectively multiplying the Raman signal and enabling sensitive detection of multiple fungicides and insecticides directly in cucumber extracts. We show that characteristic vibrational fingerprints can be reliably captured for several representative pesticides (metalaxyl, boscalid, famoxadone, thiamethoxam, etoxazole, cypermethrin) across realistic concentration ranges and in the presence of complex matrix backgrounds, achieving subppm limits of detection that approach or fall below current regulatory maximum residue limits. To convert raw spectra into actionable readouts, we integrate our process flow with a deep feed-forward (DFF) artificial intelligence model pipeline that performs automated spectral preprocessing and supervised learning for both pesticide identification and residue-level classification with respect to regulatory thresholds. This AI-enabled MIM-SERS platform establishes a generalizable route toward compact, high-throughput instruments for multiresidue pesticide surveillance in real food samples, with broader implications for molecular diagnostics and environmental monitoring.

Pesticide residues in food and agricultural products continue to constitute a significant concern for food safety, particularly when rapid decision-making is required across production and supply chains. Although chromatographic methods such as GC-MS and LC-MS/MS remain essential for confirmatory analysis, their dependence on central laboratories limits their applicability for field screening. Consequently, portable biosensor-based detection platforms have attracted increasing attention as rapid screening tools. This review synthesizes 26 peer-reviewed studies published between 2010 and 2025 on portable biosensor-based screening tools for pesticide detection in food and agricultural matrices, including electrochemical sensors, immunoassays, aptamer-based systems, paper-based lateral flow devices, and smartphone-assisted platforms. Given the heterogeneity of analytes, sensing mechanisms, and study designs, a narrative synthesis approach was applied. Overall, the evidence suggests a shift from laboratory-centered detection toward field-deployable technologies that may support preliminary screening within food safety monitoring frameworks. Paper-based lateral flow assays are widely reported as deployable formats, while electrochemical and affinity-based platforms are often positioned as intermediate solutions for mobile or semi-controlled testing environments. However, most platforms remain at the proof-of-concept or early validation stage, and challenges related to matrix interference, long-term stability, reproducibility, standardization, and large-scale implementation persist. This review highlights the potential role of portable biosensor technologies as complementary tools within tiered food safety monitoring systems and outlines key priorities for further development before wider regulatory integration can be considered.

Immunoassay-based approaches for multiplex detection: A review of pesticide residues in food and water matrices

The persistence of pesticide residues in food and water poses a significant challenge to global food safety, particularly under the pressures of intensive agriculture and climate variability. Despite significant progress in developing adsorbent materials for pesticide remediation, most approaches remain chemically optimized but geographically blind. This review introduces the concept of geo-adaptive design of carbon-based adsorbents, emphasizing that remediation materials should be tailored to the regional profiles of pesticide use, environmental conditions, and available biomass precursors. Pesticide contamination patterns vary widely across climates and agricultural systems, resulting in distinct chemical signatures that determine adsorption behavior. Simultaneously, locally abundant agro-industrial byproducts, such as walnut shells, rice husks, olive stones, or fruit pomace, offer sustainable carbon sources for region-specific materials. By correlating pesticide structure, adsorbent surface chemistry, and environmental parameters, geo-adaptive materials can be designed to maximize efficiency, selectivity, and sustainability in environmental remediation contexts, including the treatment of pesticide-contaminated soils and water streams. In addition, these materials may be integrated into food processing and packaging systems, where they can function as localized, low-cost mitigation strategies aligned with circular economy principles. The review highlights how regionally optimized carbon materials could connect advances in environmental remediation with the practical needs of food technology, leading toward food safety strategies that are both globally relevant and locally adaptable.

An electrochemical sensing strategy for organophosphorus pesticides based on dual-enzyme synergistic catalysis of plant esterase and diatomic FeCo-NC nanozyme.

Symmetrical (s-) triazine herbicides are the most commonly used pesticides, which frequently leave pesticide residues in food and environmental samples. Due to their carcinogenic and endocrine-disrupting properties, monitoring s-triazine herbicide residues in the water and food samples has become a critical concern of environmental and public health protection. Furthermore, there is no reported study on the application of salting-out assisted liquid-liquid extraction (SALLE) for simultaneous extraction of chloro-s-triazines and their major degradation products from environmental water and fruit samples. Therefore, SALLE method was developed for the simultaneous extraction of chloro-s-triazine pesticides and their degradation products from diverse samples by HPLC-DAD. In the present study, SALLE method based on binary salts was developed for the simultaneous extraction of multi-residue chloro-s-triazine pesticides, including (atrazine, cyanazine, and simazine), with their degradation products (deethylatrazine and deisopropylatrazine) from environmental water and fruit samples prior to analysis by HPLC-DAD. Various parameters that can affect the method, such as extraction solvent type and volume, type, mass and ratio of salts and pH effect, centrifugation and vortexing times were successfully optimized. The developed method provided good linearity with coefficients of regression in the range of 0.991-0.997, under the optimized conditions. The method demonstrated lower limit of detection and limit of quantification in the range of 0.002-0.089 and 0.0066-0.299µg/L, respectively. Repeatability and reproducibility in terms of %RSD were found in the range of 2.15-7.13% and 3.28-8.95%, respectively. The mean recovery was varied from 74.06 to 109.90% with RSD (n = 3) below 10% for all samples studied. The developed method has been successfully applied for the trace level extraction of pesticide residues and their degradation products in real samples, including environmental waters, and fruit samples. Hence, the developed method can be used as a selective and green alternative for the extraction of pesticide residues in water, fruits and other contaminated food samples.

There is currently no food propensity questionnaire (FPQ) developed specifically to address pesticide intake in the adolescent population. Therefore, the objective of our study was to design a specific FPQ with emphasis on fruit and vegetable consumption and dietary exposure to pyrethroids (PYR) and organophosphate (OP) insecticides and to test its reproducibility. The FPQ was designed for the purpose of this study primarily by identifying high-risk foods according to the EFSA annual reports on pesticide residues in food. In total, 99 parents/guardians of 10-12-year-old boys completed the first FPQ during May to June 2022 and again during October 2022 to January 2023. For the whole questionnaire, comprising 111 questions covering presumed major sources of pesticides in a diet, the median Cohen's weighted kappa was 0.607 (interquartile range, IQR 0.526-0.678, total range 0.275-0.864). Furthermore, similar good overall reproducibility was noted when we focused only on the presumed food sources of PYR and OP pesticides (54 questions; median kappa 0.624, IQR 0.535-0.695, total range 0.275-0.864). Best reproducibility was noted for tomatoes (fresh, in season), lettuces (generic), and pork lard. Median estimated fruit intake for 459 adolescents based on the FPQ was 262 g/day (IQR 176-376 g/day), and vegetable intake was 123 g/day (IQR 74-190 g/day). Due to its good reproducibility, this FPQ, which estimates PYR and OP pesticide exposure, represents a valuable tool for future epidemiological studies and public health surveillance that focus on pesticide residue exposure in specific populations.

(1) Pome fruits (apples and pears) are among the most frequently consumed fruits in Europe and may contribute to dietary exposure to pesticide residues. Although residue levels generally comply with maximum residue limits (MRLs), even low concentrations may cumulatively contribute to chronic health risks under conditions of frequent and long-term consumption. This study aimed to quantitatively assess dietary exposure and the potential non-carcinogenic health risks associated with pesticide residues in apples and pears, using representative monitoring and consumption data. (2) The assessment was based on results of the Polish national official monitoring program for pesticide residues in food, specifically apples and pears sampled in 2022, as reported by the National Institute of Public Health (NIZP-PZH). These data were combined with age- and body weight-specific consumption scenarios derived from FAO/WHO GEMS/Food cluster diets and national Polish statistics. For the most frequently detected pesticides (captan, flonicamid, acetamiprid and fosetyl-Al in apples; captan and acetamiprid in pears), the mean and 95th percentile concentrations were used to estimate the estimated daily intake (EDI). Non-carcinogenic risk was characterized using the hazard quotient (HQ = EDI/ADI) and the cumulative Hazard Index (HI). The hazard quotient (HQ) was calculated as the ratio of estimated daily intake to the acceptable daily intake (HQ = EDI/ADI), while the Hazard Index (HI) was defined as the sum of individual HQ values for pesticides detected in a given commodity and exposure scenario (HI = ΣHQ). Calculations were performed separately for children and adults under several dietary scenarios (Polish general population, German child, German general population, GEMS/Food G08). (3) For all pesticides and exposure scenarios, the HQ values were well below 1, indicating no exceedance of the acceptable daily intake (ADI). The highest chronic exposure was observed for apples in children (German child scenario), with the HQ values for captan, flonicamid and acetamiprid in the approximate range of 0.01-0.05, while the HI remained < 0.1 even under high-consumption conditions. In adults (Polish and German general populations, GEMS/Food G08), HQ values were approximately one order of magnitude lower than in children, and the cumulative HI values for both apples and pears were far below 1. The contribution of pears to total exposure was limited, reflecting lower consumption and fewer active substances detected. (4) This quantitative risk assessment, based on Polish monitoring data from 2022, indicates that under current residue levels and consumption patterns, chronic dietary exposure to pesticide residues from apples and pears does not pose a relevant non-carcinogenic health concern for either children or adults. Nevertheless, children consistently showed higher relative exposure than adults, underscoring the importance of age-stratified risk assessment and continued monitoring of residues in commonly consumed fruits. The findings support existing regulatory frameworks while justifying sustained, targeted surveillance of key active substances in pome fruits as part of public health prevention strategies.

The modeling of pesticide phenomena aids researchers and policymakers in reaching complex agricultural decisions. A contemporary global concern among consumers revolves around the presence of pesticide residues in food, which possesses significant threats to human health and non-target organisms. Throughout all parts of the world, pesticide concentration in food crops is determined by laboratory analysis. In a limited number of areas, predictions of pesticide concentration are performed by analytical or numerical modeling. In this study, a thorough review of pesticide models for predicting their concentrations is critically performed. Among the 53 papers examined in this study, 31 of them are based on a theoretical concept, four amalgamate empirical data with a theoretical background, ten of them are based on only experimental results, and lastly, eight are discussion articles describing observations from various field studies. Overall, more than 69% of the papers focus on direct pesticide-plant interactions which affect our food chain, while indirect effects on environmental components, especially surface water, also receive attention. To the best of our knowledge, among the limited reviews, this is the first to attempt to accumulate all such modeling information in one place, critically analyze all papers to identify their limitations and scopes, and finally provide future research directions in this area.

Organophosphorus pesticides (OPs) have been widely employed to increase food production and alleviate the increasingly serious food crisis. However, excessive use of these pesticides has seriously affected human health and even caused death due to significant pesticide residues in food. Therefore, enzymatic electrochemical sensors have been developed to monitor OP residues in food. The electrochemical detection performance of these sensors is determined by the physicochemical properties of electrochemical active materials in their active layers. The definition and classification of OPs are first introduced in this review, then the components of enzymatic electrochemical sensors, including electrodes, electrochemical active layer and bioactive enzyme layer, are analyzed in detail. Furthermore, this review emphatically discusses the recent development of enzymatic electrochemical sensors based on various electrochemical active materials: carbon-based, polymer-based, metal-based, metallic compound-based, metal organic framework-based and covalent organic framework-based materials. Finally, probable research directions for developing enzymatic electrochemical sensors with high sensitivity, excellent stability and good reproducibility are outlined to accelerate rapid, effective and low-cost on-site detection OPs in food. This review is expected to provide inspiration for the design and preparation of the high-performance enzymatic electrochemical sensors.

Research progress on functional carbon quantum dots fluorescent probes for detecting pesticide residues in food.

This study examined the perceptions and reactions of customers to pesticide residues in the Oja Oba, Mandate, and Ipata markets in Ilorin, Kwara State. Ninety participants were given a structured questionnaire; thirty respondents were chosen at random from each of the three markets. Participants' demographics, knowledge and usage of pesticides, and opinions on possible health effects were all gathered via the questionnaire. The results reported that the majority of customers lacked awareness. Of the participants, only 20.9% were aware of the health concerns connected with pesticide residues in food, and only 21.7% were aware of them. The results showed that awareness was significantly connected with educational attainment (p = 0.02) and gender (p = 0.04), but not with any other demographic characteristics. The findings imply that consumers' gender and educational attainment have a significant impact on their awareness of pesticide residues. It is recommended that specific teaching programs and awareness campaigns be implemented, focusing on populations with lower levels of education and using gender-sensitive tactics, in order to promote food safety and public health.

Selecting analytical methods for pesticide residues in food increasingly requires balancing regulatory compliance, analytical performance, and environmental sustainability. This study presents a decision-support tool that evaluates the fitness-for-purpose of pesticide analytical methods by integrating SANTE/11312/2021 v2 validation criteria with Analytical GREEnness (AGREE)-based environmental metrics. Implemented in Excel with VBA macros, the tool guides users through the input of method parameters for both quantitative and screening approaches, scoring each against acceptance criteria. Based on the results, methods are classified as suitable for risk assessment, official control, or self-monitoring. The tool also calculates greenness scores to assess environmental impact. Glyphosate analysis in cereals was selected as a case study, and three approaches were compared: liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS), flow-injection coupled to MS/MS (FI-MS/MS), and lateral flow assay (LFA). LC-MS/MS was identified as the only method suitable for official control, while FI-MS/MS and LFA met requirements for self-monitoring. The greenness assessment highlighted substantial differences, with LFA showing the lowest environmental footprint (AGREE scores of 0.63 and 0.68 for manual and automated LFAs). Overall, the tool provides a practical, user-friendly framework for selecting analytical methods that optimize both analytical performance and environmental sustainability, supporting informed decision-making in food testing.