Permanent Protection Research Articles

Modelagem do transporte de cloreto proveniente de esgoto urbano em um aquífero sedimentar usando MT3D: o caso da bateria de poços de Juazeiro do Norte (CE)

Esse trabalho consiste em um estudo de caso, em que o modelo de transporte de soluto MT3D, associado ao modelo de fluxo MODFLOW, foi utilizado na avaliação da contaminação de um aquífero por água superficial de um riacho contaminado com esgoto urbano, utilizando o cloreto como traçador. Nessa área, as águas do aquífero são explotadas por uma bateria de poços alinhada ao riacho. A calibração do modelo de transporte foi executada para reproduzir os teores de cloretos observados nas águas dos poços em campanhas de monitoramento. Já a do modelo de fluxo procurou reproduzir as cargas hidráulicas observadas durante testes de bombeamentos realizados em cada poço. Os resultados obtidos nessas calibrações foram compatíveis com as observações. A partir dos modelos calibrados, foi realizada uma simulação futura (prognóstico), visando determinar o tempo necessário para a recuperação da qualidade de água subterrânea após interrupção do lançamento de esgoto no riacho. Os resultados da modelagem indicaram que: os rebaixamentos produzidos pelo bombeamento dos poços são maiores nas proximidades do riacho; o transporte de contaminante ocorre, predominantemente, na vertical, induzido pelo bombeamento dos poços e pela recarga do aquífero a partir do riacho; os níveis de cloretos relativamente elevados nas águas dos poços podem voltar aos valores naturais do aquífero em aproximadamente um ano, caso o lançamento de esgoto no riacho seja interrompido. Assim, para evitar um maior comprometimento dos aquíferos da área por poluição persistente, o esgoto deverá ter um destino adequado e a área de preservação permanente do riacho deverá ser respeitada.

Application of Natural Zeolites for Aquatic and Air Medium Purification

One of the factors that determine the humankind existence and development is the environment. Man as a biological system is a part of nature, however the cooperation between them is quite complex [1]. On the one hand, men need permanent protection against it’s negative impact, on the other hand, they are the source of these impacts themselves [1, 2].Thanks to their unique characteristics, natural zeolites (NZ) are widely applied for solution of different ecological problems as cheap and available sorbing agents and also as basics for catalytical materials that are used for aquatic and air medium purification [3, 4]. The most frequently applied NZ are clinoptilolites that are widespread on the territory of Russia [5, 6].

Efficacy of insect nets for cabbage production and pest management depending on the net removal frequency and microclimate

In Africa, synthetic pesticide applications are overly frequent and above labelled rates. We assessed the efficacy of an insect net physical control system on field cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. capitata) production in France and Benin. Various mesh sizes and netting removal frequencies were compared under contrasting climatic conditions. Studies under Mediterranean climatic conditions (spring season) compared two mesh sizes (0.73 mm and 1.6 mm). Studies under subequatorial climatic conditions (cool and hot seasons) tested nets of mesh size 0.4 mm and 0.9 mm used either as permanent cover, removed daily, or 3 days per week. The results showed that a fine mesh did not improve the netting efficacy against pests but had a major impact on the microclimate. In Mediterranean climatic conditions, the netting efficacy and beneficial microclimate improved crop yields. In subequatorial conditions, crop yields were lowest with permanent net protection due to high temperatures under the nets and poor aphid and Spodoptera littoralis control. Removing the nets 3 days per week was a good technical/economic trade-off, ensuring acceptable efficacy with minimal effects on the microclimate.

Understanding why landholders choose to participate or withdraw from conservation programs: A case study from a Queensland conservation auction

Ensuring adequate participation by private landholders in a conservation scheme is a challenge for program managers around the world. This paper uses a case study of the Vegetation Incentives Program from Queensland, Australia, to contribute additional information to the literature on influences on participation in conservation, and to offer insight into ways to improve program design to optimise participation. The research is particularly of interest to programs that include a tender mechanism or conservation covenant in their designs. Participation in the Vegetation Incentives Program was limited outside two small geographic areas, with the result that the budget was not expended. A survey of participants revealed that a narrow subset of the rural population was attracted to participate, namely highly educated, experienced landholders with positive environmental attitudes and a low opportunity cost of participation. The research also investigated why some landholders chose to withdraw from the program before full participation. Both qualitative and quantitative methods were used in the analysis. There were a variety of reasons for making the decision to leave, including disliking the requirement for permanent protection, the tender mechanism employed, and not understanding the process well enough. This information can help improve conservation outcomes by understanding where to target limited efforts in a catchment, and clarifying the likely limitations of some aspects of scheme design.

Estimating Climate Resilience for Conservation across Geophysical Settings

Conservationists need methods to conserve biological diversity while allowing species and communities to rearrange in response to a changing climate. We developed and tested such a method for northeastern North America that we based on physical features associated with ecological diversity and site resilience to climate change. We comprehensively mapped 30 distinct geophysical settings based on geology and elevation. Within each geophysical setting, we identified sites that were both connected by natural cover and that had relatively more microclimates indicated by diverse topography and elevation gradients. We did this by scoring every 405 ha hexagon in the region for these two characteristics and selecting those that scored >SD 0.5 above the mean combined score for each setting. We hypothesized that these high-scoring sites had the greatest resilience to climate change, and we compared them with sites selected by The Nature Conservancy for their high-quality rare species populations and natural community occurrences. High-scoring sites captured significantly more of the biodiversity sites than expected by chance (p < 0.0001): 75% of the 414 target species, 49% of the 4592 target species locations, and 53% of the 2170 target community locations. Calcareous bedrock, coarse sand, and fine silt settings scored markedly lower for estimated resilience and had low levels of permanent land protection (average 7%). Because our method identifies—for every geophysical setting—sites that are the most likely to retain species and functions longer under a changing climate, it reveals natural strongholds for future conservation that would also capture substantial existing biodiversity and correct the bias in current secured lands.Identificación de Sitios Duraderos para la Conservación Usando la Diversidad del Paisaje y las Conexiones Locales para Estimar la Capacidad de Recuperación al Cambio ClimáticoResumenLos conservacionistas necesitan un método mediante el cual poder conservar la diversidad biológica mientras permiten que las especies y las comunidades se reorganicen con respecto al clima cambiante. Desarrollamos y probamos tal método, el cual basamos en características físicas asociadas con la diversidad ecológica y la capacidad de recuperación del sitio con respecto al cambio climático, en el noreste de Norteamérica. Mapeamos comprensivamente 30 escenarios geofísicos distintos basados en la geología y la elevación. Dentro de cada escenario geofísico identificamos sitios que estaban conectados por una cubierta natural y que tenían relativamente más microclimas indicados por la topografía diversa y los gradientes de elevación. Hicimos esto al puntuar cada hexágono de 450 ha en la región con estas dos características y al seleccionar aquellos que tuvieron una puntuación >SD 0.5 por encima del puntaje combinado promedio para cada escenario. Nuestra hipótesis fue que estos sitios con altas puntuaciones tuvieron la mayor capacidad de recuperación. Los comparamos con los sitios seleccionados por The Nature Conservancy por sus poblaciones de alta calidad de especies raras y sus ocurrencias de comunidades naturales. Los sitios con altos puntajes capturaron significativamente más de los sitios de biodiversidad de lo que se esperaba por casualidad (p < 0.0001): 75% de las 414 especies objetivo, 49% de las 4592 localidades de especies objetivo y 53% de las 2710 localidades de comunidades objetivo. Los escenarios de lecho rocoso calcáreo, arena gruesa y limo fino tuvieron puntos marcadamente más bajos para la capacidad de recuperación estimada y tuvieron niveles bajos de protección permanente de suelo (en promedio 7%). Ya que nuestro método identifica – para cada escenario geofísico – sitios que tienen mayor probabilidad de retener especies y funciones más tiempo bajo un clima cambiante, revela baluartes naturales para la conservación futura que también capturaría biodiversidad existente sustancial y corregiría el sesgo en tierras que actualmente están aseguradas.

Psychopathology and resident status – comparing asylum seekers, refugees, illegal migrants, labor migrants, and residents

PurposeThis study aimed to describe, compare, and predict mental health outcomes of different migrant groups and native residents in Switzerland. Subjects and methodsAsylum seekers (n=65); refugees holding permanent protection visas (n=34); illegal migrants (n=21); labor migrants (n=26); and residents (n=56) completed an assessment by questionnaire. Main outcome variables were symptoms of posttraumatic stress, anxiety and depression. It was tested whether resident status predicted psychopathology over and above the influence of control variables including social desirability, traumatic event types and post-migration resources. ResultsAsylum seekers (54.0%) and refugees (41.4%) fulfilled criteria of PTSD most frequently. Clinically relevant symptoms of anxiety and depression were most frequently reported by asylum seekers (84.6% and 63.1%, resp.) and illegal migrants (both 47.6%). Resident status contributed to psychopathology over and above the influence of control variables. ConclusionsOverall, asylum seekers, refugees, and illegal migrants showed high psychiatric morbidity. Differences in resident status appear to be specifically associated with mental health outcomes. This association persists even when controlling for social desirability, post-migration resources and traumatic events. This emphasizes the importance of current socio-political living conditions for mental health, even with respect to the psychopathological sequelae of past traumatic experiences.

Antioxidant defence and stress protein induction following heat stress in the Mediterranean snail Xeropicta derbentina.

The Mediterranean snail Xeropicta derbentina (Pulmonata, Hygromiidae), being highly abundant in Southern France, has the need for efficient physiological adaptations to desiccation and over-heating posed by dry and hot environmental conditions. As a consequence of heat, oxidative stress manifests in these organisms, which, in turn, leads to the formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). In this study, we focused on adaptations at the biochemical level by investigation of antioxidant defences and heat shock protein 70 (Hsp70) induction, both essential mechanisms of the heat stress response. We exposed snails to elevated temperature (25, 38, 40, 43 and 45°C) in the laboratory and measured the activity of the antioxidant enzymes catalase (CAT) and glutathione peroxidase (GPx), determined the Hsp70 level and quantified lipid peroxidation. In general, we found a high constitutive level of CAT activity in all treatments, which may be interpreted as a permanent protection against ROS, i.e. hydrogen peroxide. CAT and GPx showed temperature-dependent activity: CAT activity was significantly increased in response to high temperatures (43 and 45°C), whereas GPx exhibited a significantly increased activity at 40°C, probably in response to high levels of lipid peroxides that occurred in the 38°C treatment. Hsp70 showed a maximum induction at 40°C, followed by a decrease at higher temperatures. Our results reveal that X. derbentina possesses a set of efficient mechanisms to cope with the damaging effects of heat. Furthermore, we demonstrated that, besides the well-documented Hsp70 stress response, antioxidant defence plays a crucial role in the snails' competence to survive extreme temperatures.

OCUPAÇÃO DE ÁREAS DE PRESERVAÇÃO PERMANENTES DOS CANAIS FLUVIAIS EM AMBIENTE URBANO DO MUNICÍPIO DE JATAÍ – GO

Green areas protect the river canals that are closely linked to an ecologically balanced environment and the brazilian and Goias legislation defined as the area to be protected. The Municipality of Jatai (GO) has its environmental legislation they are made for permanent preservation areas, such as areas of minimum 30 m wide from the edge for all streams that drain the city, except the Rio Claro and Queixada that has the minimum width of 300 m. The environmental code of the municipality says the headwater areas surrounding radius must have a minimum of 100 m as permanent protection. The director plan of Jatai served as reference and cartographic software was used ArcGIS Desktop 9.2 and its tools to define the areas of the city which invaded the permanent preservation areas. The scenario pointed out that of all the surveyed river canals. These canals have eight permanent preservation areas with irregular occupation by local people. The 383.431,4 m² of permanent preservation areas of the urban environment Jatai are irregularly occupied, representing 3,81% of the total areas of permanent preservation areas. The environmental legislation of the municipality agrees with the sole paragraph of art. 2 Brazilian Forest Code of 1965 and the Forest Goias (1995), and in some points is seen even more restrictive in the case of permanent preservation areas of the springs. The issue of urban expansion and economic activities are the factors that define the criteria for the occupancy of permanent preservation areas. The study sought to highlight the illegal occupation of man in areas of permanent preservation of fluvial channels Jatai (GO).

Estimativa da população em unidades de conservação na Amazônia Legal brasileira: uma aplicação de grades regulares a partir da Contagem 2007

Neste artigo é testado um método para aumentar a resolução de dados censitários e apresentá-los agregados em uma grade regular. A metodologia empregada é composta pela agregação dos domicílios representados por suas coordenadas geográficas obtidas pela Contagem da População do Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística (IBGE) de 2007 e pela desagregação dos dados por setor censitário utilizando proporcionalidade de área. Os dados assim gerados foram usados para estimar a população residente em 114 unidades de conservação da Amazônia Legal brasileira, criadas até 2006, de modo a testar a metodologia em unidades territoriais que não seguem os limites político-administrativos, nem aqueles das unidades territoriais de coleta utilizados pelo IBGE. Esta metodologia também contribui para os estudos de população em áreas protegidas, dada a escassez de estimativas do volume da população em unidades de conservação. Os resultados mostraram uma população nas unidades selecionadas de 325.398 habitantes, sendo 297.693 em unidades de Uso Sustentável e 27.705 em unidades de Proteção Integral; no entorno estimou-se uma população de 1.020.237 habitantes. Apesar de limitações inerentes ao uso da Contagem 2007, a agregação de dados em grades revela-se como uma metodologia bastante promissora, tendo em vista os avanços no emprego das geotecnologias por parte do IBGE desde então. A grade minimiza problemas observados no uso de unidades administrativas ou de coleta para a espacialização dos dados censitários e apresenta-se como uma abordagem com grande potencial de aplicação na Demografia e em outras áreas do saber.

Percent recent mortality (PRM) of stony corals as an ecological indicator of coral reef condition

The reef communities of the Florida coral reef tract play a major role in supporting the regional economy but are threatened by increased exploitation and environmental factors. Coral reef ecosystem services are vital to the economy of SE Florida where revenue and jobs depend on the status of reef resources. Here, we used an extensive, reef monitoring database collected by the Florida Reef Resilience (FRRP, 2003–2011) and the Atlantic and Gulf Rapid Reef Assessment (AGRRA, 1997–2011) programs to evaluate percent recent mortality (PRM) as a robust ecological indicator of coral colony and coral reef status. PRM, the proportion of a coral colony that has experienced recent tissue mortality so that corallite structures in the non-living parts of the coral are still intact and identifiable to species, can be attributed to disturbances taking place within days to a few months preceding the surveys.Based on data from >50,000 colonies from 11 coral species and nearly 1400 sites, we propose a benchmark level of <1% PRM and <5% prevalence of partial mortality for Florida reefs during periods of background, low-stress environmental conditions. PRM levels >1.0% and prevalence levels >5% can be used as early warning indicators of degrading conditions. Average PRM values >2% are indicative of increasingly stressful conditions as those experienced during temperature anomalies and major hurricanes. Finally, PRM values considerably >2% are reflective of significantly stressful conditions and warning signals of potential major coral mortality as evidenced by mean PRM levels of >10% recorded in Florida as a consequence of the 2010 extreme cold-water event. PRM and prevalence values from Florida reefs compared favorably with those recorded in the Caribbean and the Mesoamerican region where a benchmark of 2% for background levels of PRM under low-level, chronic stress was proposed. The status of this indicator can be easily communicated to stakeholders and will benefit managers by providing: (1) a baseline to assess the status of coral populations; and (2) early-warning indicators of unfavorable conditions that may trigger management actions such as temporary closures or the establishment of more permanent protection such as MPAs.

Exploring preferences and non-use values for hidden archaeological artefacts: a case from Denmark

This paper presents a choice experiment study of a proposed wetland restoration project which aims to preserve archaeological artefacts from Stone Age villages which are presently buried within the topsoil. Wetland restoration can avoid destruction of the artefacts due to agricultural cultivation and drainage, and in addition improve biological diversity and recreational opportunities. The results indicate that even though the artefacts are not visible or usable for the population of today, but may contain information and potential value for future generations, the strongest preferences displayed is for ensuring permanent protection of archaeological artefacts, rather than biological diversity and recreational opportunities. The results are discussed in relation to the Prospect Theory: people value a loss of cultural heritage higher than a gain of new cultural goods or services. This insight is of general interest to cultural economics and cultural policy, especially with respect to heritage protection.

Transcript profiling combined with functional annotation of 2,662 ESTs provides a molecular picture of Eucalyptus gunnii cold acclimation

Plants respond to low temperatures through an intricately coordinated transcription network which results in cold acclimation, a phenomenon by which plants increase their freezing tolerance. To analyse the global transcriptome of Eucalyptus gunnii cold-acclimated leaves, 2,662 ESTs were classified by FunCat and the corresponding transcripts quantified throughout a cold acclimation programme using macro-array technique. This combined analysis resulted in the description of the temporal patterns of gene expression with regard to their identity and corresponding functional categories. This paper proposes a predictive hierarchical classification of the main protective mechanisms likely to participate in the increased cold tolerance of E. gunnii. Given the time course and level of the LEA/dehydrin accumulation, the cryoprotection through proteins may explain most of the hardening. This cryoprotection would be completed by sugar synthesis (raffinose and maltose). As a permanent response, red-ox regulation and protection of membranes or macromolecules against peroxidation look mainly associated with metallothioneins. A limited part of cold response seems to be dedicated to dehydration avoidance through osmoprotectants or to frost avoidance through antifreeze proteins and deposition of cuticle wax.

Estimating impacts of population growth and land use policy on ecosystem services: A community-level case study in Virginia, USA

Despite advances in decision-making tools and frameworks, the consideration of ecosystem services in local, regional, and national scale planning remains limited. In this study, we address two broad goals: (1) By using “off the shelf” data and tools, we provide a practical example for how local policy makers can incorporate considerations of ecosystem services in land use planning; and (2) To understand the complex and non-linear relationships between population growth, land use change, land use policy, and ecosystem services. Focusing on Albemarle County and Charlottesville, VA, we assess impacts on a range of ecosystem services using a land consumption ratio that links the land use to population density patterns. Varying levels of population growth were modeled and impacts to ecosystem services quantified given current land use policies. With increasing population growth, ecosystem services that exist within areas targeted for growth are initially compromised. However, once growth pressures reach a threshold, ecosystem services across the region are dramatically degraded. These findings point to the tradeoffs that community-level planners face when ecosystem services are considered in the context of population growth. Our results also highlight the importance of maintaining permanent protection on lands with high natural and cultural value.

The Extent of Underinsurance: New Zealand Evidence

It has been a common assumption by the insurance industry world-wide that households are under-insured. We examine new evidence for underinsurance using a comprehensive survey of New Zealand households and full life-cycle needs analysis. This survey is unique internationally in that it also covers total and permanent disability, trauma and income protection insurances, as well as examining underinsurance by household type and ethnicity. We show that analysis of underinsurance needs to be more comprehensive than simple measurement of rates or levels of cover and needs to compare actual coverage levels to adequacy levels. We find no indication that of a crisis in life underinsurance, with rates and levels of life insurance ownership similar to those in the USA and ownership levels correlated to needs for life cover. There is, however, strong evidence that levels of life cover are often poorly chosen, with little relationship between ideal cover and actual cover, indicating household considerations about insurance cover levels are inadequate.

The impact of permanent protection on cost and participation in a conservation programme: A case study from Queensland

Conservation covenants have become a popular tool to protect land in perpetuity. Understanding the impact of a covenant on price and enrolment in a conservation programme can help decision makers plan their interventions more carefully, and judge whether the extra longevity justifies the changed participation rate and cost. This paper uses the case study of a conservation auction in Queensland, Australia, to investigate the influence of a compulsory conservation covenant on bid price and participation. Results from the case study indicate that inclusion of a mandatory covenant reduced participation rates and increased costs, and resulted in a narrow subset of the rural population participating in the auction and providing competitive bids. In particular, non-production landholders were more likely to participate and to provide lower bids.

Long-Term Clinical Outcome Analysis of Poly-Methyl-Methacrylate Cranioplasty for Large Skull Defects

The goal of secondary cranioplasty is permanent cerebral protection in an esthetically acceptable fashion. Reconstruction of cranial defects can be performed with several different materials. Alloplastic materials, such as preformed methyl-methacrylate (PMMA) cranioplasties, are an alternative frequently used at our institution. This retrospective analysis was designed to review the outcomes of PMMA cranioplasty for skull defect reconstruction. Seventy consecutive patients who had 78 PMMA cranioplasties placed from 2003 through 2010 were identified. Mechanism of injury, location of cranioplasty, type of original repair, postoperative complications, and follow-up time were reviewed. Of the 70 patients, 6 patients had failure and removal of their original PMMA cranioplasty and reinsertion of another, and 2 patients had failure and removal of 2 cranioplasties with replacement of a third, creating a total of 78 PMMA cranioplasties placed. The predominant mechanism of injury was trauma (64%). The most frequent postoperative complication was infection (13%). With the exception of the 2 patients with implant exposure, no patients reported an unacceptable cosmetic result. An overall complication rate of 24% was seen. The results of previous studies have shown that infection and complication rates of cranioplasties accomplished with bone cement are substantially higher, that titanium-based implants may obscure follow-up imaging for tumor patients, and that the outcomes regarding hydroxyapatite-based ceramics, although similar to PMMA, are associated with a much higher cost. PMMA remains a cost-effective and proven method to repair cranial defects that fulfills the goals of cranial reconstruction for skull defects.

Nonviral-mediated hepatic expression of IGF-I increases Treg levels and suppresses autoimmune diabetes in mice.

In type 1 diabetes, loss of tolerance to β-cell antigens results in T-cell–dependent autoimmune destruction of β cells. The abrogation of autoreactive T-cell responses is a prerequisite to achieve long-lasting correction of the disease. The liver has unique immunomodulatory properties and hepatic gene transfer results in tolerance induction and suppression of autoimmune diseases, in part by regulatory T-cell (Treg) activation. Hence, the liver could be manipulated to treat or prevent diabetes onset through expression of key genes. IGF-I may be an immunomodulatory candidate because it prevents autoimmune diabetes when expressed in β cells or subcutaneously injected. Here, we demonstrate that transient, plasmid-derived IGF-I expression in mouse liver suppressed autoimmune diabetes progression. Suppression was associated with decreased islet inflammation and β-cell apoptosis, increased β-cell replication, and normalized β-cell mass. Permanent protection depended on exogenous IGF-I expression in liver nonparenchymal cells and was associated with increased percentage of intrapancreatic Tregs. Importantly, Treg depletion completely abolished IGF-I-mediated protection confirming the therapeutic potential of these cells in autoimmune diabetes. This study demonstrates that a nonviral gene therapy combining the immunological properties of the liver and IGF-I could be beneficial in the treatment of the disease.

Forest owners’ social networks – possibilities to enhance knowledge exchange

Forest owners’ decision making is influenced by the people around them. In this thesis, social network approach was used to examine owners’ relationships with different individuals and organisations. The motivation of the thesis was to detect effective information channels that reach owners and the network structures that support owners’ decision-making. Social network data from Finnish, small-scale forest owners were collected with a mail questionnaire and by phone interviews in two decision-making situations, timber trade (n=753) and voluntary biodiversity protection (n=44). For examining owners’ peer networks, data were collected via forest owners’ and forest professionals’ focus group interviews (n=43) and by interviewing and observing a study circle (n=7). Characteristics of egocentric networks were calculated with quantitative methods of social network analysis. Protection processes and owners’ mutual interactions were analysed with qualitative theory driven content analysis. Results indicate that several owners have one trusted professional with whom they deal both in timber trade and in voluntary protection. When owners have large holdings or significant decisions to make, such as permanent protection, their networks are large and diverse. To keep owners actively making forest-related decisions, it is important to transfer functioning channels between the professional and the owner to the next generation of owners. A forest management plan is a way to promote activities other than silviculture, such as biodiversity protection. Owners’ peer networks particularly exist among families and in the countryside between neighbours. In urban areas, owners meet mainly in expert-led extension events, where they have only a little space for mutual communication. One of the few owner-led practices is forest owner clubs. To strengthen forest owners’ identities, owner-driven and sufficiently homogenous peer groups that focus on diverse and interesting topics need to be created. Moreover, it is important to support the delivery of forest-related knowledge among families and via mentor owners.

Labor Market Institutions, Mobility, and Dualization in the Nordic Countries

Comparing the Nordic countries, this article examines different combinations of permanent and temporary employment protection legislation, and whether such differences are reflected in patterns of labor market transitions. We find higher levels of transitions from unemployment to temporary contracts in Sweden and Finland, with lax regulation of temporary contracts and strict regulation of permanent contracts. Further, temporary employees are integrated into permanent contracts in countries with lax (Denmark) or strict (Norway) regulation of permanent contracts, while this is not the case in Finland and Sweden. For these countries, the study indicates a certain degree of labor market duality, with low mobility from temporary to permanent employment contracts.

Grafiti en América Latina. Caso de Cuba – murales de propaganda

The origins and the process of graffiti development on Cuba were different than in other parts of the continent. Due to the time of its appearance, initiators’ motivation, authors and viewers, dominating topics, graffiti was assigned an important propaganda function, supervised and controlled by the state. Subordinating street art to the revolution resulted in complete change in the character of graffiti. Propaganda murals beca me the element of public space of the country, confirming subsequent generations of viewers over the period of 50 years in necessity of permanent struggle and protection of revolution achievements. Thus, subject matter has not become messages of independent artists or average citizens, their perception of problems, expectations, but the vision and expectations of state authorities’ policy. The article is based mainly on observations and documentation gathered by the author in 2011; it presents the most important trends in the development and presence of propaganda graffiti on Cuba.